Measuring service quality at tourist destinations: an application of importance-performance analysis to an Alpine ski resort
Really interesting as it kinda puts IPA in its place - cool tool, but more as a diagnostic tool for destination management or tour operations, to be used by managers in resort - something that does not require factor analysis and is easy to administer. Notably has many items - 97 - and has short punchy items - one word.
Gives the impression that IPA is a useful tool, but perhaps not complex enough for a PhD. if that makes sense.
Wednesday 12 December 2007
Friday 7 December 2007
Tribe 1998
From SERVQUAL to HOLSAT: holiday satisfaction in Varadero, Cuba
The authors’ initially question whether it is possible to measure tourist satisfaction with the entity that is known as a ‘holiday’. They consider 3 different approaches to measuring quality and satisfaction:
1) Importance-performance Analysis (IPA)
2) SERVQUAL
3) SERVPERF
The authors then consider what sort of battery of questions is suitable for measuring consumer satisfaction with holidays. Using a methodology akin to SERVQUAL, the authors develop a model they call HOLSAT. (see methods details)
The battery was compiled using 4 different sources;
1) Promotional material, like tour operator brochures
2) Critical literature – literature with no particular interests to serve (newspaper reports, guide books, television reports)
3) Focus Group Tourists (n=11) who had travelled to the resort where primary research was taking place (Valadero, Cuba)
4) Critical reflection.
The decision was taken to follow the same rough methodology as SERVQUAL – i.e. two measures (P-E).
A pilot study was carried out with 102 holidaymakers using a battery of 56 items. A series of interpretable grids were used to track WIN/LOSS in the authors’ eyes. The idea behind a complex framework of +1, +2, 0, -1 etc., was to mediate the results from the two measures (positive or negative holiday attribute, importance of the attribute). This was seen as a weakness of previous models. The grid frameworks also allowed for the generation of mean expectation and realisation scores.
Despite the seemingly weighted nature of the positive attributes, 32 out of the 47 positive attributes showed performance ratings to be significantly lower than the expectations of holidaymakers.
The model, designed to yield more explanatory power than the likes of SERVQUAL, was found wanting. The reason for this failure, according to the authors, is that consumer expectations exceed performance over a wide range of destination attributes. One key issue that had perhaps not been considered was the choice of Varadero, Cuba, as a destination – Caribbean on the cheap – so tourist’s expectations tend to be ‘Caribbean high’ and then they are disappointed as they get what they pay for. The authors then question the role of brochures in raising expectations.
The obvious extension to this work is to investigate value, as this may capture the lower price, and perhaps the belief that Varadero is actually good value.
Unfortunately the model does not appear to add anything meaningful to research, and a flawed choice of destination, without consideration of value, leave the work lacking in meaningful results.
The authors’ initially question whether it is possible to measure tourist satisfaction with the entity that is known as a ‘holiday’. They consider 3 different approaches to measuring quality and satisfaction:
1) Importance-performance Analysis (IPA)
2) SERVQUAL
3) SERVPERF
The authors then consider what sort of battery of questions is suitable for measuring consumer satisfaction with holidays. Using a methodology akin to SERVQUAL, the authors develop a model they call HOLSAT. (see methods details)
The battery was compiled using 4 different sources;
1) Promotional material, like tour operator brochures
2) Critical literature – literature with no particular interests to serve (newspaper reports, guide books, television reports)
3) Focus Group Tourists (n=11) who had travelled to the resort where primary research was taking place (Valadero, Cuba)
4) Critical reflection.
The decision was taken to follow the same rough methodology as SERVQUAL – i.e. two measures (P-E).
A pilot study was carried out with 102 holidaymakers using a battery of 56 items. A series of interpretable grids were used to track WIN/LOSS in the authors’ eyes. The idea behind a complex framework of +1, +2, 0, -1 etc., was to mediate the results from the two measures (positive or negative holiday attribute, importance of the attribute). This was seen as a weakness of previous models. The grid frameworks also allowed for the generation of mean expectation and realisation scores.
Despite the seemingly weighted nature of the positive attributes, 32 out of the 47 positive attributes showed performance ratings to be significantly lower than the expectations of holidaymakers.
The model, designed to yield more explanatory power than the likes of SERVQUAL, was found wanting. The reason for this failure, according to the authors, is that consumer expectations exceed performance over a wide range of destination attributes. One key issue that had perhaps not been considered was the choice of Varadero, Cuba, as a destination – Caribbean on the cheap – so tourist’s expectations tend to be ‘Caribbean high’ and then they are disappointed as they get what they pay for. The authors then question the role of brochures in raising expectations.
The obvious extension to this work is to investigate value, as this may capture the lower price, and perhaps the belief that Varadero is actually good value.
Unfortunately the model does not appear to add anything meaningful to research, and a flawed choice of destination, without consideration of value, leave the work lacking in meaningful results.
Thursday 6 December 2007
Dean 2002
Service Quality and Customers’ Willingness to Pay More for Travel Services
Although mainly concerned with travel agency and WTPM (willingness to pay more)
but methodology is quite useful. Uses adapted SERVQUAL (23-items with 20 original) + a loyalty scale based on Parasuraman and zeithaml
plus a WTPM variable.
Need to chase up some articles.
Although mainly concerned with travel agency and WTPM (willingness to pay more)
but methodology is quite useful. Uses adapted SERVQUAL (23-items with 20 original) + a loyalty scale based on Parasuraman and zeithaml
plus a WTPM variable.
Need to chase up some articles.
Tsaur 2005
Cultural Differences of Service Quality and Behavioral Intention in Tourist Hotels
Good article. Main focus is looking at cultural differences. But methods are good and similar to what I want to look at.
They used SERVQUAL plus Zeithamls 13.
Highlights a need to get to know Cronbach's alpha and ANOVA etc.
Satatistical knowledge seems to be lacking.
Good article. Main focus is looking at cultural differences. But methods are good and similar to what I want to look at.
They used SERVQUAL plus Zeithamls 13.
Highlights a need to get to know Cronbach's alpha and ANOVA etc.
Satatistical knowledge seems to be lacking.
Juwaheer 2004
Exploring international tourists’ perceptions of hotel operations by using a modified SERVQUAL approach–
Good study - similar methods to what I have been lokoing at - ADAPTED SERVQUAL and overall measures of satisfaction/quality/recommend/return etc...
Methods are perhaps in advance of previous research - full breakdown of the factors that influence each of the dependent variables.
Interesting limitations - especially the acknowlegement that depth has been sacrificed in favour of breadth. The authors suggest that the work should be complemented with qualitative work.
They also mention the culture issue - of how peopl efrom different cultures may perceive things differently.
Good study - similar methods to what I have been lokoing at - ADAPTED SERVQUAL and overall measures of satisfaction/quality/recommend/return etc...
Methods are perhaps in advance of previous research - full breakdown of the factors that influence each of the dependent variables.
Interesting limitations - especially the acknowlegement that depth has been sacrificed in favour of breadth. The authors suggest that the work should be complemented with qualitative work.
They also mention the culture issue - of how peopl efrom different cultures may perceive things differently.
Friday 30 November 2007
Geva 1989
Changes in the perception of a service during its consumption: A case of organised tours
Quite interesting and remarkably straight forward. 15 item scale - pre tour, post tour
Look at comparative rankings. What changes? why?
Scale put together using lit review, industry informants, and consumers.
The key difference was the terrible ranking of the tour operator post-tour compared to pre-tour.
Why was this? Not really diagnostic - this model.
Quite interesting and remarkably straight forward. 15 item scale - pre tour, post tour
Look at comparative rankings. What changes? why?
Scale put together using lit review, industry informants, and consumers.
The key difference was the terrible ranking of the tour operator post-tour compared to pre-tour.
Why was this? Not really diagnostic - this model.
Gilbert 2006
A cross-industry comparison of customer satisfaction
Good lit review - but ultimatley concerned with big cross-industry comparisons
Does mention a big "Customer Satisfaction Survey" from Gilbert in another article. - with Satpers and Satsett
Discusses confirmation-disconfirmaton, performance only, overall satisfaction.
Good lit review - but ultimatley concerned with big cross-industry comparisons
Does mention a big "Customer Satisfaction Survey" from Gilbert in another article. - with Satpers and Satsett
Discusses confirmation-disconfirmaton, performance only, overall satisfaction.
Akama 2002
Measuring tourist satisfaction with Kenya's wildlife safari: a case study of Tsavo West National Park
Uses adapted SERVQUAL - 29 items. Trying to understand why fewer people are visiting Kenyan NPs.
The results shoe that people are satisfaied, but point to other possible reasons.
Uses adapted SERVQUAL - 29 items. Trying to understand why fewer people are visiting Kenyan NPs.
The results shoe that people are satisfaied, but point to other possible reasons.
Thursday 29 November 2007
Kozak 2001
Repeaters'behavior at two distinct destinations
Useful article in that the methodology is similar to that which I will probably employ.
The author considers destination loyalty considering four main factors:
1) Level of tourist satisfaction
2) Previous visits to the same destination
3) Previous visits to the same country
4) Other factors
And considers amongst other hypotheses, how tourist satisfaction is associated with behavioural intentions to return to the same destination and to visit other similar destinations in the same country.
Although there is a strong focus on destination loyalty, the methods used can be of value. A questionnaire was used and was informed by both primary and secondary sources – personal experience, informal discussions, open-ended survey questions, TV shows, holiday brochures.
The main questionnaire itself was in three sections:
1) Questions regarding visits to the tourist destination in question – bio- section.
2) 45-item scale measuring attributes using a D-T scale (delighted-terrible scale)
3) 3-items asking about future intentions to revisit.
The questionnaire was designed alongside the guidelines of the performance-only approach.
A first draft of the questionnaire was piloted with 220 British tourists, before the main questionnaire was administered in Dalaman Airport, Turkey and Palma Airport, Mallorca. Around 500 responses were gained from each destination. The sample size of 500 was targeted to facilitate good factor analysis.
The data analysis was split into four parts:
1) Chi-square was applied to explore if any difference existed between the number of previous visits to Mallorca and Turkey.
2) A series of independent t-statistical tests was used to determine whether significant differences existed between the scores assigned to the intention to return by the first-time and repeat tourists.
3) Factor analysis was performed to identify which attributes could be reduced to a smaller set of factors.
4) Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to demonstrate the degree of influence of certain variables over the likelihood of respondents to return.
Although may of the findings of the study are specific to destination loyalty, both destinations showed that overall satisfaction had a strong influence of behavioural intention to revisit the same and neighbouring resorts.
Useful article in that the methodology is similar to that which I will probably employ.
The author considers destination loyalty considering four main factors:
1) Level of tourist satisfaction
2) Previous visits to the same destination
3) Previous visits to the same country
4) Other factors
And considers amongst other hypotheses, how tourist satisfaction is associated with behavioural intentions to return to the same destination and to visit other similar destinations in the same country.
Although there is a strong focus on destination loyalty, the methods used can be of value. A questionnaire was used and was informed by both primary and secondary sources – personal experience, informal discussions, open-ended survey questions, TV shows, holiday brochures.
The main questionnaire itself was in three sections:
1) Questions regarding visits to the tourist destination in question – bio- section.
2) 45-item scale measuring attributes using a D-T scale (delighted-terrible scale)
3) 3-items asking about future intentions to revisit.
The questionnaire was designed alongside the guidelines of the performance-only approach.
A first draft of the questionnaire was piloted with 220 British tourists, before the main questionnaire was administered in Dalaman Airport, Turkey and Palma Airport, Mallorca. Around 500 responses were gained from each destination. The sample size of 500 was targeted to facilitate good factor analysis.
The data analysis was split into four parts:
1) Chi-square was applied to explore if any difference existed between the number of previous visits to Mallorca and Turkey.
2) A series of independent t-statistical tests was used to determine whether significant differences existed between the scores assigned to the intention to return by the first-time and repeat tourists.
3) Factor analysis was performed to identify which attributes could be reduced to a smaller set of factors.
4) Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to demonstrate the degree of influence of certain variables over the likelihood of respondents to return.
Although may of the findings of the study are specific to destination loyalty, both destinations showed that overall satisfaction had a strong influence of behavioural intention to revisit the same and neighbouring resorts.
Weaver 2007
Destination Evaluation: The Role of Previous Travel Experience and Trip Characteristics
not particularly relevant - looks more at destination loyalty than brand loyalty.
does touch on PVP - price value perception model - possibly more suitable than EDP model
thinking at this point that the initial research will focus on capturing the motivation behind going on the trip, while post trip interviews working on the evaluation of the trip using a model - possibly PVP
pg 335 mentions a couple of authors looking at word-of-mouth and loyalty - need to follow up.
Need to get Chang and Wildt 1994 to view Price-Value Perceptions model
not particularly relevant - looks more at destination loyalty than brand loyalty.
does touch on PVP - price value perception model - possibly more suitable than EDP model
thinking at this point that the initial research will focus on capturing the motivation behind going on the trip, while post trip interviews working on the evaluation of the trip using a model - possibly PVP
pg 335 mentions a couple of authors looking at word-of-mouth and loyalty - need to follow up.
Need to get Chang and Wildt 1994 to view Price-Value Perceptions model
Kozak 2002
A Systematic Approach to Non-Repeat and Repeat Travel: With Measurement and Destination Loyalty Concept Implications
Presents a Schema - a way of showing all the different types of NR (non-repeat) and RT (repeat tourist). pg 26 shows all the different types. Good, because these are the sorts of questions people will ask - what happens if personal circumstances change
what happens if I was onoly ever going to go there once?
Introduces terms like:
ITO - one time only
CIO - Checking it out
The idea is good I think , and the third section on loyalty may want to include enough to be able to classify the visitors.
Presents a Schema - a way of showing all the different types of NR (non-repeat) and RT (repeat tourist). pg 26 shows all the different types. Good, because these are the sorts of questions people will ask - what happens if personal circumstances change
what happens if I was onoly ever going to go there once?
Introduces terms like:
ITO - one time only
CIO - Checking it out
The idea is good I think , and the third section on loyalty may want to include enough to be able to classify the visitors.
Keaveney 1995
Customer Switching Behavior in Service Industries: An Exploratory Study
Links in very nicely to several other articles, notably Bloemer and Petrick's use of Zeithaml's scale for measuring customer loyalty.
Looks at Critical Incident technique (CIT) - whereby one event (or combination or events) leads to a switch to a rival service provider.
This seems to explain switching behaviour better than an overall dissatisfaction.
The author considers a number of different industries and looks at the key incidents that affect them most.
Good article to make reference to whan considering switching behaviour.
Links in very nicely to several other articles, notably Bloemer and Petrick's use of Zeithaml's scale for measuring customer loyalty.
Looks at Critical Incident technique (CIT) - whereby one event (or combination or events) leads to a switch to a rival service provider.
This seems to explain switching behaviour better than an overall dissatisfaction.
The author considers a number of different industries and looks at the key incidents that affect them most.
Good article to make reference to whan considering switching behaviour.
Beeho 1997
Conceptualizing the experiences of heritage tourists A case study of New Lanark World Heritage Village
although oft-quoted, I am really unsure of the value of this article. Uses SWOT analysis and a heirarchical model to look at how consumers value New Lanark as a tourist attraction. Need to maybe come back to when I see reference made to it.
The heirarchy is split down into,
1) Activities
2)Settings
3) Experiences
4) Benefits
although oft-quoted, I am really unsure of the value of this article. Uses SWOT analysis and a heirarchical model to look at how consumers value New Lanark as a tourist attraction. Need to maybe come back to when I see reference made to it.
The heirarchy is split down into,
1) Activities
2)Settings
3) Experiences
4) Benefits
Tuesday 27 November 2007
Duke 1996
Consumer-Defined Dimensions for the Escorted Tour Industry Segment: Expectations, Satisfactions
very useful article from a methods point-of-view as it discusses ways to devlop a scale of items to measure tourism satisfaction with particular segments of the market.
Discusses using traditional scales as well as tourist-driven scales.
Goes into huge detail in looking at factor analysis and how oblique and orthogonal may vary.
very useful article from a methods point-of-view as it discusses ways to devlop a scale of items to measure tourism satisfaction with particular segments of the market.
Discusses using traditional scales as well as tourist-driven scales.
Goes into huge detail in looking at factor analysis and how oblique and orthogonal may vary.
Murray 2002
The Relationships among Service Quality, Value, Satisfaction, and Future Intentions of Customers at an Australian Sports and Leisure Centre
Another comparison of different measures (CS, SQ, PV, intentions)
- uses path analysis - SEM to test for relationships between models.
AMOS4
RNI
DELTA2
RMSEA
GFI
depicted diagramatically in the text.
Another comparison of different measures (CS, SQ, PV, intentions)
- uses path analysis - SEM to test for relationships between models.
AMOS4
RNI
DELTA2
RMSEA
GFI
depicted diagramatically in the text.
Churchill JR 1979
A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs
Slams marketing lit, for nonsensical use of quants and then propses more robust measures. Good examples in customer satisfaction - excellent for use in lit review. Reliability and validity in qaunts - what are we looking for?
Slams marketing lit, for nonsensical use of quants and then propses more robust measures. Good examples in customer satisfaction - excellent for use in lit review. Reliability and validity in qaunts - what are we looking for?
Petrick 2001
An Examination of the Determinants of Entertainment Vacationers' Intentions to Revisit
Not entirely sure how relevant this is.
Compares past experience / satisfaction / perceived value in looking at Entertainment resorts future purchasing intentions.
Need to try to understand the methods:
Path analysis
SAS CALIS
maximum likelihood model.
They basically look to which of the models (satis, SQ, VALUE) best explain different types of future behaviour.
For my research, I think I need to just pick one (SERVPERF, PERVAL) and stick with it.
The aim of my research is not to compare several different approaches.
For CS, and PV - they use a unidimensional scale here.
Not entirely sure how relevant this is.
Compares past experience / satisfaction / perceived value in looking at Entertainment resorts future purchasing intentions.
Need to try to understand the methods:
Path analysis
SAS CALIS
maximum likelihood model.
They basically look to which of the models (satis, SQ, VALUE) best explain different types of future behaviour.
For my research, I think I need to just pick one (SERVPERF, PERVAL) and stick with it.
The aim of my research is not to compare several different approaches.
For CS, and PV - they use a unidimensional scale here.
Monday 26 November 2007
Meeting with XF 20/11
brief meeting to discuss where we are at.
I talked XF through some of the scales I had looked at and how they had developed.
SERVQUAL, SERVPERF, PERVAL, etc.
XF said to look at some more environmental scales, as questions may be asked why I am not considerig more of them.
I feel fairly confident that I am on the right track, the most positive thing I have so far, I believe, is Yuksel's methodology, shared by Bloemer, Petrick, whereby factor analysis brings out the dimensions, and then regression analysis with 'repeat/recommend' variables tells which of the dimensions lead more to future intentions.
XF consciously led me more towards methods - where am I at with Factor analysis? regression analysis?
I talked XF through some of the scales I had looked at and how they had developed.
SERVQUAL, SERVPERF, PERVAL, etc.
XF said to look at some more environmental scales, as questions may be asked why I am not considerig more of them.
I feel fairly confident that I am on the right track, the most positive thing I have so far, I believe, is Yuksel's methodology, shared by Bloemer, Petrick, whereby factor analysis brings out the dimensions, and then regression analysis with 'repeat/recommend' variables tells which of the dimensions lead more to future intentions.
XF consciously led me more towards methods - where am I at with Factor analysis? regression analysis?
Friday 16 November 2007
Zeithaml 1996
The Behavioral Consequences of Service Quality
Interesting in that it goes beyond SERVQUAL, SERPERF arguments - really drives at profits and the business case.
A little beyond whaere I am at.
In the sense that I am, to some extent, assuming the business case for what I am looking at.
Retention is good.
Interesting in that it goes beyond SERVQUAL, SERPERF arguments - really drives at profits and the business case.
A little beyond whaere I am at.
In the sense that I am, to some extent, assuming the business case for what I am looking at.
Retention is good.
Petrick 2005
Academic papers Reoperationalising the loyalty framework
Good paper - looks more at segmentation/ demographics than perceived value/satisfaction - but the third Hypothesis H3, does concern satisfaction and intention to repeat purchase.
Key point to come form the article - or question - does loyalty lead to satisfaction or vice-versa???
One use of customer loyalty data is to identify distinct segments of visitors related to their loyalty to the service. pg 200
"To be truly loyal, they must hold a favourable attitude to the product, and purchase it repeatedly."
Loyalty assessed using a Consumer loyalty matrix - detailed pg 201
Interesting idea to avoid the asking of consumers " who else do you travle with?" - look at intensity of trips taken with a gievn TO. Low intensity, high intensity etc.
Good paper - looks more at segmentation/ demographics than perceived value/satisfaction - but the third Hypothesis H3, does concern satisfaction and intention to repeat purchase.
Key point to come form the article - or question - does loyalty lead to satisfaction or vice-versa???
One use of customer loyalty data is to identify distinct segments of visitors related to their loyalty to the service. pg 200
"To be truly loyal, they must hold a favourable attitude to the product, and purchase it repeatedly."
Loyalty assessed using a Consumer loyalty matrix - detailed pg 201
Interesting idea to avoid the asking of consumers " who else do you travle with?" - look at intensity of trips taken with a gievn TO. Low intensity, high intensity etc.
Woodruff 1997
Customer Value: The Next Source for Competitive Advantage
Key text in terms of defining customer value - looks at a number of definitions and then looks to find common ground, before presenting a heirarchical model of customer value. The idea being to operationalise the model for managers to use.
Really need to dig into for 'customer value' pinning down.
Not sure on the heirarchical model...
Key text in terms of defining customer value - looks at a number of definitions and then looks to find common ground, before presenting a heirarchical model of customer value. The idea being to operationalise the model for managers to use.
Really need to dig into for 'customer value' pinning down.
Not sure on the heirarchical model...
Bloemer 1999
Linking perceived service quality and service loyalty: a multi-dimensional perspective
Really key article, as we are starting to see a split between the service quality/ percived value scales, and the loyalty scales.
The author uses one scale (SERVQUAL) to look at service quality, and then another to look at loyalty and then looks for the links.
Why not take this template and look for something beyond SERVQUAL on the service quality/perceived value side?
13-item scale
pg 1086
great diagrams pg 1097 showing exactly the links I am looking for
Really key article, as we are starting to see a split between the service quality/ percived value scales, and the loyalty scales.
The author uses one scale (SERVQUAL) to look at service quality, and then another to look at loyalty and then looks for the links.
Why not take this template and look for something beyond SERVQUAL on the service quality/perceived value side?
13-item scale
pg 1086
great diagrams pg 1097 showing exactly the links I am looking for
de Ruyter 1998
On the relationship between perceived service quality, service loyalty and switching costs
Similar to Bloemer 1999 - looks at loyalty (3 dimensions) and compares with service quality (1 item) differs from Bloemer 1999, who uses SERVQUAL 22- item scale.
Good lit review - service loyalty
and then service quality into serice loyalty
For reasons of data collection efficiency, a unidimensional measure of perceived service quality relating to an evaluation of the core service was used ( instead of 22-item SERVQUAL)
Loyalty SCALE pg 442 - 13 items - Preference/ price indifference / dissatisfaction response
strong leaning towards dissatisfaction - need a closer look.
Used across a range of industries - is it generalisable?
In terms of the dissatisfaction - is this at just one incident, rather than overall dissatisfaction? may require incident based measure (critical incident technique).
Similar to Bloemer 1999 - looks at loyalty (3 dimensions) and compares with service quality (1 item) differs from Bloemer 1999, who uses SERVQUAL 22- item scale.
Good lit review - service loyalty
and then service quality into serice loyalty
For reasons of data collection efficiency, a unidimensional measure of perceived service quality relating to an evaluation of the core service was used ( instead of 22-item SERVQUAL)
Loyalty SCALE pg 442 - 13 items - Preference/ price indifference / dissatisfaction response
strong leaning towards dissatisfaction - need a closer look.
Used across a range of industries - is it generalisable?
In terms of the dissatisfaction - is this at just one incident, rather than overall dissatisfaction? may require incident based measure (critical incident technique).
Petrick 2002
Development of a multi-dimensional scale for measuring the perceived value of a service
new scale - SERV- PERVAL A mixture of SERVQUAL and SERPERF. Takes a large number of items (52) and reduces it to 25 throught he thoughts of a number of experts. The scale itself doesn't look like much, but seems to hold up. Key that it is applied to a service/tourism experience - A cruise.
"six times less expensive to plan marketing strategies for retaining consumers, than it is to attract new consumers" pg 119
Delves into the definitions of value.
The authors are looking for a way to measure perceived value of a service (rather than a product)
Model outlined pg 124 - five dimensions of perceived value
1. behavioural
2. Monetary Price
3. Emotional response
4. Quality
5. Reputation
Applied to cruise industry - 2 7-day cruises.
Large list of literature where the scale comes from pg 125 - FOLLOW UP ON
pg 128 scale itself with 25 items.....check it out.
new scale - SERV- PERVAL A mixture of SERVQUAL and SERPERF. Takes a large number of items (52) and reduces it to 25 throught he thoughts of a number of experts. The scale itself doesn't look like much, but seems to hold up. Key that it is applied to a service/tourism experience - A cruise.
"six times less expensive to plan marketing strategies for retaining consumers, than it is to attract new consumers" pg 119
Delves into the definitions of value.
The authors are looking for a way to measure perceived value of a service (rather than a product)
Model outlined pg 124 - five dimensions of perceived value
1. behavioural
2. Monetary Price
3. Emotional response
4. Quality
5. Reputation
Applied to cruise industry - 2 7-day cruises.
Large list of literature where the scale comes from pg 125 - FOLLOW UP ON
pg 128 scale itself with 25 items.....check it out.
Tuesday 13 November 2007
Notes on big picture
I am looking at how consumers view their trip and how this leads to repeat purchase, or recommendation.
RT is part of how they 'value' their trip.
The question is how do I build RT into this 'value'?
The resson this is so difficult is because there is no real consensus in measuring the 'value' of the trip befor even considering RT.
We need to look at how consumers value their trip and then integrate RT.
SERVQUAL - expectancy-disconfirmation - percived value-??? what else?
RT is part of how they 'value' their trip.
The question is how do I build RT into this 'value'?
The resson this is so difficult is because there is no real consensus in measuring the 'value' of the trip befor even considering RT.
We need to look at how consumers value their trip and then integrate RT.
SERVQUAL - expectancy-disconfirmation - percived value-??? what else?
13th November Plan
Started putting together a document trying to sort through the differences between Service quality, customer satisfaction, perceived value, recommendation, WOM, repeat purchase, and loyalty.
Big initial focus on Oh 1999, and some of the softer articles, like Butcher, splitting the perceived value into affective and cognitive, like many authors.
Tuesday - follow up article leads - need to keep beefing up the document.
makes sense to use the Oh 1999 model as a base and develop from there.
Big initial focus on Oh 1999, and some of the softer articles, like Butcher, splitting the perceived value into affective and cognitive, like many authors.
Tuesday - follow up article leads - need to keep beefing up the document.
makes sense to use the Oh 1999 model as a base and develop from there.
Sunday 11 November 2007
Cater 2004
Playing with Risk? Participant Perceptions of Risk and Management Implications in Adventure Tourism
very much focused on hard adventure and risk. not particularly interesting
very much focused on hard adventure and risk. not particularly interesting
Buckley 2006
Adventure tourism products: Price, duration, size, skill, remoteness
Really a basic overview of the adventure tour - number of people, cost etc. Not particularly useful. maybe useful for definition references.
Really a basic overview of the adventure tour - number of people, cost etc. Not particularly useful. maybe useful for definition references.
Davies 2006
Exploring price and non-price decision making in the UK package tour industry: Insights from small-scale travel agents and tour operators
not quite the article the title led me to believe - really delves into the market structure in serious detail. Not particularly relevant.
not quite the article the title led me to believe - really delves into the market structure in serious detail. Not particularly relevant.
Sanchez 2004
Perceived value of the purchase of a tourism product
Interesting 'holistic' view with a focus on the pre- as well as the post purchase- p396 shows all the 'emotional' 'affective' side of the research.
Need to follow up on the leads from this article if I wish to follow up or understand the emotional angle.
This article too goes sthrough the history and development of perceived value.
Very detailed model employed - many different items looking at
Functional
Emotional
Social
Travel Agency
Tour package
Interesting 'holistic' view with a focus on the pre- as well as the post purchase- p396 shows all the 'emotional' 'affective' side of the research.
Need to follow up on the leads from this article if I wish to follow up or understand the emotional angle.
This article too goes sthrough the history and development of perceived value.
Very detailed model employed - many different items looking at
Functional
Emotional
Social
Travel Agency
Tour package
Butcher 2001
Evaluative and relational influences on service loyalty
One step beyond OH 1999 in that it brings the affective as well as cognitive aspects of value to the table.
affective bringing in more of the emotions, while affective looks more at the rational way of looking at things.
In this sense the link with the TL becomes stronger - or needs to be looked at more.
terms like social comfort, friendship, and social regard.
i think this is a little bit far from where I want to be at, but could be useful to cover for aspects that I may not include in the model.
One step beyond OH 1999 in that it brings the affective as well as cognitive aspects of value to the table.
affective bringing in more of the emotions, while affective looks more at the rational way of looking at things.
In this sense the link with the TL becomes stronger - or needs to be looked at more.
terms like social comfort, friendship, and social regard.
i think this is a little bit far from where I want to be at, but could be useful to cover for aspects that I may not include in the model.
Oh 1999
Service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value: A holistic perspective
Great article - need to read around it - but sounds exactly what I am looking for. Applied to lodgings but integrated model IS what I am looking for. Looks at an discusses all the relevant concepts, and then builds an integrated / holistic model.
First of all looks at service quality lit SERQUAL
Then Oliver's 1981 expectancy disconfirmation model looks more at "direct" measures - the SERVQUAL measured before and after and then looks at the difference. EDP looks at comparisions with "worse than/ better than expected" scale. This model asserts that customer satisfaction is a direct function of subective disconfirmation.
SERVQUAL differs from EDP in that EDP attempts to explain and theorize whereas SERVQUAL looks to describe
Oh points to the fact that EDP is generally accepted by market researchers.
Then moves onto value.
Zeithaml. (1988)
Dodds (1991)
Woodruff (1997)
Parasuraman (1997)
Lots of ambiguity of definitions of value.
This study looks at the diversified views on the consumer purchase decision-making process that are reflected in the models of service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value.
Great article - need to read around it - but sounds exactly what I am looking for. Applied to lodgings but integrated model IS what I am looking for. Looks at an discusses all the relevant concepts, and then builds an integrated / holistic model.
First of all looks at service quality lit SERQUAL
Then Oliver's 1981 expectancy disconfirmation model looks more at "direct" measures - the SERVQUAL measured before and after and then looks at the difference. EDP looks at comparisions with "worse than/ better than expected" scale. This model asserts that customer satisfaction is a direct function of subective disconfirmation.
SERVQUAL differs from EDP in that EDP attempts to explain and theorize whereas SERVQUAL looks to describe
Oh points to the fact that EDP is generally accepted by market researchers.
Then moves onto value.
Zeithaml. (1988)
Dodds (1991)
Woodruff (1997)
Parasuraman (1997)
Lots of ambiguity of definitions of value.
This study looks at the diversified views on the consumer purchase decision-making process that are reflected in the models of service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer value.
Thursday 8 November 2007
bolton 1991
A Multistage Model of Customers' Assessments of Service Quality and Value
quite an old deep article - looking primarily at SERVQUAL- from Parasuraman, Berry, Zeithaml.
Looks at Satisfaction (EDP), service quality, service value, perceived quality
The methods looked at local telephone services from 1985
sample of 1408
limitations - phone service (?) multi-stage not really suitable.
quite an old deep article - looking primarily at SERVQUAL- from Parasuraman, Berry, Zeithaml.
Looks at Satisfaction (EDP), service quality, service value, perceived quality
The methods looked at local telephone services from 1985
sample of 1408
limitations - phone service (?) multi-stage not really suitable.
martinez 2006
Can Price Promotions Improve Tourist Loyalty to Tour Operators
better article than it seems - appears to be about price promotion which isn't really too relevant, but the methodology is cool
looks at loyalty, attitude, and switching costs.
makes a good distinction between First timer and repeater.
pg 39 instrument
Perceived quality 8 items
switching costs 2 items
to loyalty 2 items
better article than it seems - appears to be about price promotion which isn't really too relevant, but the methodology is cool
looks at loyalty, attitude, and switching costs.
makes a good distinction between First timer and repeater.
pg 39 instrument
Perceived quality 8 items
switching costs 2 items
to loyalty 2 items
cronin 1992
Measuring Service Quality: A Reexamination and Extension
good article - trying to sort the eternal problem of Service quality ? customer satisfaction / intentions
links well into value.
one of the key articles as it really tries to dig into the issues and arguments.
highlights how complicated the whole issue is.
is serice quality different from satisfaction? how?
uses SERVQUAL (parasuraman, zeithaml, berry 1988)
importance weighted SERVQUAL
SERVPERF
inportance-weighted version of SERVPERF
medium sized city in US
660 usuable questionnaires
banking, fast food, dry cleaning, pest control
generalizable?
good article - trying to sort the eternal problem of Service quality ? customer satisfaction / intentions
links well into value.
one of the key articles as it really tries to dig into the issues and arguments.
highlights how complicated the whole issue is.
is serice quality different from satisfaction? how?
uses SERVQUAL (parasuraman, zeithaml, berry 1988)
importance weighted SERVQUAL
SERVPERF
inportance-weighted version of SERVPERF
medium sized city in US
660 usuable questionnaires
banking, fast food, dry cleaning, pest control
generalizable?
Grewal 1998
The Effects of Price-Comparison Advertising on Buyers' Perceptions of Acquisition Value, Transaction Value, and Behavioral Intentions
of limited value - perceived acquisition value discussed, but more to do with products, prices and advertising.
distinction between transaction value and acquisition value (?)
pg 48
I think perceived acquisition value is closer to what i am talking about - perceived value.
Perceived transaction value - more about variations in price - special deals and how peolpe feel about them.
of limited value - perceived acquisition value discussed, but more to do with products, prices and advertising.
distinction between transaction value and acquisition value (?)
pg 48
I think perceived acquisition value is closer to what i am talking about - perceived value.
Perceived transaction value - more about variations in price - special deals and how peolpe feel about them.
Moliner 2006
Relationship quality with a travel agency: The influence of the postpurchase perceived value of a tourism package
very eloborate model - sample from spain looking at perceived value/satisfaction/ trust / commitment
Interesting veer in to the more emotional side of feelings, rather than the purely rational.
Good blurbs on SATISFACTION, COMMITMENT, TRUST, PERCEIVED VALUE,
Uses GLOVAL scale (?) full scale shown on pg 203
Good breakdown of trust/ satisfaction/commitment instruments pg 205
402 interviews in 3 different cities.
Analysed using LISREL
touches on Ajzen Fishbein
very eloborate model - sample from spain looking at perceived value/satisfaction/ trust / commitment
Interesting veer in to the more emotional side of feelings, rather than the purely rational.
Good blurbs on SATISFACTION, COMMITMENT, TRUST, PERCEIVED VALUE,
Uses GLOVAL scale (?) full scale shown on pg 203
Good breakdown of trust/ satisfaction/commitment instruments pg 205
402 interviews in 3 different cities.
Analysed using LISREL
touches on Ajzen Fishbein
Wakefield 1996
Retailing hedonic consumption: A model of sales promotion of a leisure service
Good study - touches on loyalty and perceived value in a straight forward way - no in-depth discussion.
Perhaps not too applicable as it looks at minor league baseball with fireworks, but the instrument is interesting.
p417
B Loyalty to service provision
3 items
C perceived Quality of service environment
3 items
E. Peceived value of service provision
3 items
F Repatronage Intention
1 item
Good study - touches on loyalty and perceived value in a straight forward way - no in-depth discussion.
Perhaps not too applicable as it looks at minor league baseball with fireworks, but the instrument is interesting.
p417
B Loyalty to service provision
3 items
C perceived Quality of service environment
3 items
E. Peceived value of service provision
3 items
F Repatronage Intention
1 item
Tuesday 6 November 2007
Tam 2000
The Effects of Service Quality, Perceived Value and Customer Satisfaction on Behavioral Intentions
excellent article - lit review great - goes into the development of EDP, customer satisfaction, inferred and perceived disconfirmation, performance, perceived performance, service quality, perceived value, and how they are all linked together.
Pg34 has some great lines. Perceived value is conceptualised as a trade-off of perceived benefits relative to perceived sacrifices (monroe 1991). Perceived benefits seen as the "get" component and perceived sacrifices as the "give" component.
Chang and Wildt (1994) found that perceived value was a significant determinant of repurchase decisions.
Methods
Questionnaire given out at a chinese restaurant - 92 usuable responses
3 sections
1 - EDP composite - asking for perfoemance evaluation with expectations and then performance of each attribute.
2 - Overall quality, satisfaction, perceived value and behavioral intentions.
- satisfaction 4 items
- perceived value - 3 items
- behavioural intentions - 4 items
3 demographics
using SEM - structured equation modelling to see the links between EDP, satisfaction, perceived quality, intentions - LISREL 8
regressions looked at
(1) customer satisfaction on perceived value and service quality
(2) behavioural intentions on perceived value and service quality
(3) behavioural intentions on perceived value, service quality and customer satisfaction.
Study showed that satisfaction was a strong determinant of behavioral intentions.
Limitations - value only included monetary value - not time, effort etc.
could be limited to restaurants.
excellent article - lit review great - goes into the development of EDP, customer satisfaction, inferred and perceived disconfirmation, performance, perceived performance, service quality, perceived value, and how they are all linked together.
Pg34 has some great lines. Perceived value is conceptualised as a trade-off of perceived benefits relative to perceived sacrifices (monroe 1991). Perceived benefits seen as the "get" component and perceived sacrifices as the "give" component.
Chang and Wildt (1994) found that perceived value was a significant determinant of repurchase decisions.
Methods
Questionnaire given out at a chinese restaurant - 92 usuable responses
3 sections
1 - EDP composite - asking for perfoemance evaluation with expectations and then performance of each attribute.
2 - Overall quality, satisfaction, perceived value and behavioral intentions.
- satisfaction 4 items
- perceived value - 3 items
- behavioural intentions - 4 items
3 demographics
using SEM - structured equation modelling to see the links between EDP, satisfaction, perceived quality, intentions - LISREL 8
regressions looked at
(1) customer satisfaction on perceived value and service quality
(2) behavioural intentions on perceived value and service quality
(3) behavioural intentions on perceived value, service quality and customer satisfaction.
Study showed that satisfaction was a strong determinant of behavioral intentions.
Limitations - value only included monetary value - not time, effort etc.
could be limited to restaurants.
Imrie 2000
Customer Retention and Loyalty in the Independent Mid-Market Hotel Sector: A United Kingdom Perspective
More of a review of literature - takes idea used by Morgan and Dev in the States
looks at CONTEXT, CONTROL, and CUSTOMER
in terms of loyalty.
Context - the customer situation can change
Control - the firm variables - marketing mix - can change
Customer - demographics, background of the customer can change.
Not particularly relevant -
Find studies by Lewis and Pizam... look at how what a customer expects matches up with what the company is trying to deliver.
CONSISTANCY of PRODUCT QUALITY is a variable I can take from this study.
Bejou and Palmer - Service failure and loyalty - 1998
More of a review of literature - takes idea used by Morgan and Dev in the States
looks at CONTEXT, CONTROL, and CUSTOMER
in terms of loyalty.
Context - the customer situation can change
Control - the firm variables - marketing mix - can change
Customer - demographics, background of the customer can change.
Not particularly relevant -
Find studies by Lewis and Pizam... look at how what a customer expects matches up with what the company is trying to deliver.
CONSISTANCY of PRODUCT QUALITY is a variable I can take from this study.
Bejou and Palmer - Service failure and loyalty - 1998
Formica 2002
Segmentation of Travelers Based on Environmental Attitudes
Good piece - looks at segmentation using NEP (new environmental paradigm) -
large scale survey from 1992 - (80,000) people - little bit outdated
p41 goes through the methodological steps - factor analysis - K-mean cluster analysis
multiple discriminant analysis of 42 destination attributes
Tukeys multiple range test
ANOVA
Chi-Square
Breaks down into 4 types - limits of nature
Humans can manage nature
humans over nature
humans abuse and interfere with nature
Good piece - looks at segmentation using NEP (new environmental paradigm) -
large scale survey from 1992 - (80,000) people - little bit outdated
p41 goes through the methodological steps - factor analysis - K-mean cluster analysis
multiple discriminant analysis of 42 destination attributes
Tukeys multiple range test
ANOVA
Chi-Square
Breaks down into 4 types - limits of nature
Humans can manage nature
humans over nature
humans abuse and interfere with nature
Ekinci, Y. 2002
Segmenting Overseas British Holidaymakers by Personal Values
Interesting article - employs a modified LOV (List of Values) to segment 320 british holiday-makers - beach in turkey
A number of statistical methods are used (K-means square, chi-square, hierarchical/non-hierarchical...)
2 clusters are found - Relationship seekers and Agenda Achievers - Interestingly found that Relationship seekers perceived higher service quality and satisfaction, were more inclined to return and make recommendations to others.
Need to look into the LOV a bit more maybe.
Also mentioned other scales - RVS and VALS - Rokeach Value Survey - Value and Lifestyle-based segmentation.
Interesting article - employs a modified LOV (List of Values) to segment 320 british holiday-makers - beach in turkey
A number of statistical methods are used (K-means square, chi-square, hierarchical/non-hierarchical...)
2 clusters are found - Relationship seekers and Agenda Achievers - Interestingly found that Relationship seekers perceived higher service quality and satisfaction, were more inclined to return and make recommendations to others.
Need to look into the LOV a bit more maybe.
Also mentioned other scales - RVS and VALS - Rokeach Value Survey - Value and Lifestyle-based segmentation.
Sunday 4 November 2007
Sunday 4th November
found the mintel reports.
All the reports - split by leisure, finance, retail, etc.
photocopied the ethical tourism - 2 main questions.
and the general one - about how people rate different things- boycotts etc.
generally every two years. the individual reports.
had a look at the co-op. they do have a consumer question about some 'ethical acts'
going to have a further read at the reports today.
All the reports - split by leisure, finance, retail, etc.
photocopied the ethical tourism - 2 main questions.
and the general one - about how people rate different things- boycotts etc.
generally every two years. the individual reports.
had a look at the co-op. they do have a consumer question about some 'ethical acts'
going to have a further read at the reports today.
Friday 2 November 2007
Daily Plan
I think I have beating around the bush for way too long.
I need to decide what I am going to do each day and stick to it, or at least clarify what I have done. Too much mincing. my time is valuable now. I need to make the most of it.
Friday 2nd november - get involved in perceived value literature. try to get inside the literature and see where it can lead. speak to fernando again about this edgar wood lady's article. Visit leeds uni, look at their mintel stuff - do straight from the car. try to investigate co-op 1999 and 2004. methodologies???? - start a log of all articles in loyalty/ repeat purchase/ perceived value.
blog by COB
I need to decide what I am going to do each day and stick to it, or at least clarify what I have done. Too much mincing. my time is valuable now. I need to make the most of it.
Friday 2nd november - get involved in perceived value literature. try to get inside the literature and see where it can lead. speak to fernando again about this edgar wood lady's article. Visit leeds uni, look at their mintel stuff - do straight from the car. try to investigate co-op 1999 and 2004. methodologies???? - start a log of all articles in loyalty/ repeat purchase/ perceived value.
blog by COB
RTP session
Presented to a few from CCTC and ICRT
Bit of a strange presentation. I don't think I really followed it through properly. I didn't explain what I will look at at all really. It came across very confusing. very confusing.
but i got what I needed out of it.
same old question about the definition of RT came up - again I need to find a way of defining it.
the best thing i can think of is rewording the title to something like 'the role of responsible tourism policy in repeat purchase behaviour in the soft adventure market'
I still see no value in even having a working definition - i can use cape town if I want to, but where is the value?
Other ideas where regarding the open/closed nature of the questions I wanted to ask. I think was aiming for completely closed, maybe choices -- Correia suggested more opportnity for the consumer to voice their opinion.
Anna made a very good point - why make it so RT focussed? Why not just look at loyalty and if RT comes up...
I think that is fair, but I don't think the instrument was ever jsut going to look at RT. It has to look at Perceived value and then see if RT plays a role in this.
XF made the fair point - what other methodologies in this area have I looked at? Where am I pulling my method from? out of my arse it seems.
There must be literature about loyalty - about perceived value - about ranking priorities - where are these articles? GO GET THEM.
Methodologically I sucked. Good tho, because in a years time I'll fooking blow them away.
'All singing, all dancing instrument.' I'll show them it's possible.
Lu raised a good point about stand out RT things - orphanages for example - will they dominate? I think this goes back to Anna's point - this should not be an RT questionnaire.
If RT jumps out, then fair enough.
Bit of a strange presentation. I don't think I really followed it through properly. I didn't explain what I will look at at all really. It came across very confusing. very confusing.
but i got what I needed out of it.
same old question about the definition of RT came up - again I need to find a way of defining it.
the best thing i can think of is rewording the title to something like 'the role of responsible tourism policy in repeat purchase behaviour in the soft adventure market'
I still see no value in even having a working definition - i can use cape town if I want to, but where is the value?
Other ideas where regarding the open/closed nature of the questions I wanted to ask. I think was aiming for completely closed, maybe choices -- Correia suggested more opportnity for the consumer to voice their opinion.
Anna made a very good point - why make it so RT focussed? Why not just look at loyalty and if RT comes up...
I think that is fair, but I don't think the instrument was ever jsut going to look at RT. It has to look at Perceived value and then see if RT plays a role in this.
XF made the fair point - what other methodologies in this area have I looked at? Where am I pulling my method from? out of my arse it seems.
There must be literature about loyalty - about perceived value - about ranking priorities - where are these articles? GO GET THEM.
Methodologically I sucked. Good tho, because in a years time I'll fooking blow them away.
'All singing, all dancing instrument.' I'll show them it's possible.
Lu raised a good point about stand out RT things - orphanages for example - will they dominate? I think this goes back to Anna's point - this should not be an RT questionnaire.
If RT jumps out, then fair enough.
Wednesday 31 October 2007
Burrell & Morgan
Looking into the ontological epistemological debate
Most basic ontological question;
is reality out there? or is it a product of one's mind?
a product of individual consciousness.
is reality of an 'objective' nature?
epistomological
is knowledge hard or soft (a more subjective, spiritual or even transcendental kind)
the extreme positions ask whether knowledge can be acquired (hard) or whether it is something which has to personaly experienced.
human nature
is the human 'the master rather than the marionette'?
do humans respond to what is out there in a mehanistic or deterministic fashion, or do they create? do they have 'free will'?
Most basic ontological question;
is reality out there? or is it a product of one's mind?
a product of individual consciousness.
is reality of an 'objective' nature?
epistomological
is knowledge hard or soft (a more subjective, spiritual or even transcendental kind)
the extreme positions ask whether knowledge can be acquired (hard) or whether it is something which has to personaly experienced.
human nature
is the human 'the master rather than the marionette'?
do humans respond to what is out there in a mehanistic or deterministic fashion, or do they create? do they have 'free will'?
Sunday 28 October 2007
Re draft of R1
Just while I remember - HG suggested redrafting the document I did for the R1.
Probs should do this after the RTP thing.
that's it.
Probs should do this after the RTP thing.
that's it.
Friday 26 October 2007
Supervisory meeting 24/10
Met with HG and XF to discuss the change of plan.
Based around the switch to just looking at repeat purchasing.
HG was keener on the original plan, looking at pre-departure, post-trip stuff, but once I explained the past customer part, he seemed satisfied.
The sample, as HG pointed out, could be massive, so there is a need to limit. I suggested by destination.
HG suggested that one of the main issues would be getting people to fill in the forms - and suggested that serious buy in form the TO would allow the TL to administer the forms, but as an augmented CSQ, rather than an additional form.
HG was pointing to getting maybe 40 tour groups in a destination during a given period, with the TL administering the form. This would allow for a big enough sample. However the only CSQs I would want to look at would be those of repeaters(?). This could seriously limit the numbers, but I guess just more forms would be the plan.
Big issue I still need to address with HG is the international aspect. The questions in the survey, regarding the ethical profiling of individuals, should be taken from, or based on, something. For example. Mintel. co-op (1999 + 2004), I guess any other work done in the area.
There was some chat about mintel - go to the british library - check leeds, manchester
Based around the switch to just looking at repeat purchasing.
HG was keener on the original plan, looking at pre-departure, post-trip stuff, but once I explained the past customer part, he seemed satisfied.
The sample, as HG pointed out, could be massive, so there is a need to limit. I suggested by destination.
HG suggested that one of the main issues would be getting people to fill in the forms - and suggested that serious buy in form the TO would allow the TL to administer the forms, but as an augmented CSQ, rather than an additional form.
HG was pointing to getting maybe 40 tour groups in a destination during a given period, with the TL administering the form. This would allow for a big enough sample. However the only CSQs I would want to look at would be those of repeaters(?). This could seriously limit the numbers, but I guess just more forms would be the plan.
Big issue I still need to address with HG is the international aspect. The questions in the survey, regarding the ethical profiling of individuals, should be taken from, or based on, something. For example. Mintel. co-op (1999 + 2004), I guess any other work done in the area.
There was some chat about mintel - go to the british library - check leeds, manchester
Tuesday 23 October 2007
Opperman 2000
Tourism Destination Loyalty
Good article - goes into the real basic history of where brand loyalty came from.
need to pick up on the leads - the actual study is about destination loyalty, but the intro - key points - are very relevant.
Go through biblio - pick out articles - put together timeline.
Good article - goes into the real basic history of where brand loyalty came from.
need to pick up on the leads - the actual study is about destination loyalty, but the intro - key points - are very relevant.
Go through biblio - pick out articles - put together timeline.
Jacoby 1973
Brand Loyalty vs. Repeat Purchasing Behavior
Old text - looking at the difference between brand loyalty and Repeat purchase behaviour.
Has 6 criteria for repeat purchase behaviour - contends that the two concepts are quite distinct.
Makes some key points about what needs to be investigated.
Look at 6 points again
(1) non-random
(2) needs to be a puchase
(3) expressed over time
(4) by some decision-making unit (key for me)
(5) needs to be alternative brands to choose from
(6) part of a decision making process
to be BRAND LOYAL
AGAIN makes reference to the Discomfort of dissonance, and the attempt to avoid this by adopting brand loyalty as a purchase strategy.
Old text - looking at the difference between brand loyalty and Repeat purchase behaviour.
Has 6 criteria for repeat purchase behaviour - contends that the two concepts are quite distinct.
Makes some key points about what needs to be investigated.
Look at 6 points again
(1) non-random
(2) needs to be a puchase
(3) expressed over time
(4) by some decision-making unit (key for me)
(5) needs to be alternative brands to choose from
(6) part of a decision making process
to be BRAND LOYAL
AGAIN makes reference to the Discomfort of dissonance, and the attempt to avoid this by adopting brand loyalty as a purchase strategy.
Westwood 1999
Branding the package holiday--The role and significance of brands for UK air tour operators
Excellent Piece - strong links to the adventure market - in a sense applying what ought not be done in the soft-adventure market.
Talks about 'dissonance reduction' as a way of lookoing at the issue - need to investigate further.
Points to the limited success of branding in UK TOs.
Role of emotions in attachment to a brand.
Idea of sticking with the same brand to avoid perceived risk.
Lots of intangibles - our beliefs/feelings/emotions
Look up de Chernatony and McDonald.
Why would people care about the 'brand' of a holiday? You go away, you come back - people ask how your holiday was - do they care which company you went with? Do they care which luggage tag you have? nope.
Mathieson and Wall sequential model of consumer decision making - pre-consumption, experience, post-consumption. We look at post-consumption stage.
At the post-consumption stage the consumer is left with largely intangible, emotional elements - memories, photographs, and souvenirs of the experience. ' travel satisfaction evaluation' takes place now - appraisal and reappraisal of the entire experience - which, as Mathieson and Wall state, ahs a strong infleence on subsequent decisions - allegiance to the brand manifesting in brand loyalty, repeat purchase and recommendation to friends, relatives and colleagues.
Excellent Piece - strong links to the adventure market - in a sense applying what ought not be done in the soft-adventure market.
Talks about 'dissonance reduction' as a way of lookoing at the issue - need to investigate further.
Points to the limited success of branding in UK TOs.
Role of emotions in attachment to a brand.
Idea of sticking with the same brand to avoid perceived risk.
Lots of intangibles - our beliefs/feelings/emotions
Look up de Chernatony and McDonald.
Why would people care about the 'brand' of a holiday? You go away, you come back - people ask how your holiday was - do they care which company you went with? Do they care which luggage tag you have? nope.
Mathieson and Wall sequential model of consumer decision making - pre-consumption, experience, post-consumption. We look at post-consumption stage.
At the post-consumption stage the consumer is left with largely intangible, emotional elements - memories, photographs, and souvenirs of the experience. ' travel satisfaction evaluation' takes place now - appraisal and reappraisal of the entire experience - which, as Mathieson and Wall state, ahs a strong infleence on subsequent decisions - allegiance to the brand manifesting in brand loyalty, repeat purchase and recommendation to friends, relatives and colleagues.
Monday 22 October 2007
Muller 2000
Targeting the CANZUS baby boomer explorer and adventurer segments
Interesting article in the sense that it goes into typologies in some detail - which could be fruitful when analysing results. Otherwise - a great deal of focus on demographics and also particular to those countries - AUS CAN US NZ. Looking to get marketing advantage out of them.
Interesting article in the sense that it goes into typologies in some detail - which could be fruitful when analysing results. Otherwise - a great deal of focus on demographics and also particular to those countries - AUS CAN US NZ. Looking to get marketing advantage out of them.
Riley 2001
The Case for Process Approaches in Loyalty Reseach in Tourism
Interesting article in one of my first forays into 'repeat purchase' or loyalty.
Touches on some good points and identifies many areas of literature - marketing/consumer behaviour/organisational theory/ involvement/ attachment.
Key point - measures of loyalty look at 'the pull of the object (how does that inspire loyalty?) and the other, the propensity of the individual to be loyal.
Interesting spin-off the roll of the group in influencing the feel/consensus.
Interesting article in one of my first forays into 'repeat purchase' or loyalty.
Touches on some good points and identifies many areas of literature - marketing/consumer behaviour/organisational theory/ involvement/ attachment.
Key point - measures of loyalty look at 'the pull of the object (how does that inspire loyalty?) and the other, the propensity of the individual to be loyal.
Interesting spin-off the roll of the group in influencing the feel/consensus.
Tuesday 16 October 2007
morocco trip
looking at the group that i was a part of
beth/bill - canadians living in USA - used a booking agent. age 27/30. been on two previous trips with different companies - no particular memories of either - think one may have been expore. Bill just gives the credit card to beth to book the trip. bill sceptical about Fair Trade products - do they really help? and also sceptical of carbon offsetting. had serious doubts about the whole 'ethical' debate - other group members regarded this as 'too American'. they were outdoorsy people with experience of camping and hiking. Typology - no brand loyalty - but money not relly the main issues - just whatever the agent says - AGENT BOOKERS
Patricia/lily - canadians from vancouver - had booked 3 consecutive Imtrav trips in morocco - Imperial cities and 2 treks - they had been with Imtrav in Mongolia and had enjoyed it - this was their main reason for booking with Imtrav. They were very consciencious - they looked at many many details before booking - they considered all the meals, they did research on all the accomodations, looked at transfers and distances to the airports - and made an overall decision. They are part of a waling group in vancouver. Pat was not impressed with where we camped before summitting. She wanted there to be proper toilets - and was not enjoying the shit everywhere. She also did not appreciate squat toilets. They had been on several soft-adventure trips - including Kili. Typology - CAUTIOUS CAREFUL CONSUMER
Fiona - rev from Birmingham - very conscientous. Ethical consumer. Do not know whay she chose imtrav. Lots of experience in Africa (8 years) but did not want to travel alone. Was surprised by other lack of belief in being able to make a difference. Typology - ETHICAL CONSUMER
Tessa - admin worker from Sheffield - seemed to have strong ethical beliefs - uses freecycle, walks to work, buy fairtrade whan she can, possibly more as part of a self-identity than anything else. Had used other companies before and was able to spot differences. Thought that Expore having a local and a Westerner with the group made communication easier. Typology - SELF-IDENTIFIER
Brian - older man - retired - been on many trips, getting a little past it now. Been to Himilayas, Peru etc - got to know a lady from Tucan or who recommended Tucan and that is what attracted him to the company originally - very knowledgeable about other companies in the market, if not fully up-to-date. Typology - TRADITIONAL
Mike - Australian living in London - found Imtrav through a search engine - very flexible in terms of expectations - no real allegiance to imtrav - going on another trip in November - with Bex to Egypt. Typology - EASY BREEZY
Andy/DAN - accountant/buyer - similar to Mike - easy breezy - just take whatever comes. EASY BREEZY
beth/bill - canadians living in USA - used a booking agent. age 27/30. been on two previous trips with different companies - no particular memories of either - think one may have been expore. Bill just gives the credit card to beth to book the trip. bill sceptical about Fair Trade products - do they really help? and also sceptical of carbon offsetting. had serious doubts about the whole 'ethical' debate - other group members regarded this as 'too American'. they were outdoorsy people with experience of camping and hiking. Typology - no brand loyalty - but money not relly the main issues - just whatever the agent says - AGENT BOOKERS
Patricia/lily - canadians from vancouver - had booked 3 consecutive Imtrav trips in morocco - Imperial cities and 2 treks - they had been with Imtrav in Mongolia and had enjoyed it - this was their main reason for booking with Imtrav. They were very consciencious - they looked at many many details before booking - they considered all the meals, they did research on all the accomodations, looked at transfers and distances to the airports - and made an overall decision. They are part of a waling group in vancouver. Pat was not impressed with where we camped before summitting. She wanted there to be proper toilets - and was not enjoying the shit everywhere. She also did not appreciate squat toilets. They had been on several soft-adventure trips - including Kili. Typology - CAUTIOUS CAREFUL CONSUMER
Fiona - rev from Birmingham - very conscientous. Ethical consumer. Do not know whay she chose imtrav. Lots of experience in Africa (8 years) but did not want to travel alone. Was surprised by other lack of belief in being able to make a difference. Typology - ETHICAL CONSUMER
Tessa - admin worker from Sheffield - seemed to have strong ethical beliefs - uses freecycle, walks to work, buy fairtrade whan she can, possibly more as part of a self-identity than anything else. Had used other companies before and was able to spot differences. Thought that Expore having a local and a Westerner with the group made communication easier. Typology - SELF-IDENTIFIER
Brian - older man - retired - been on many trips, getting a little past it now. Been to Himilayas, Peru etc - got to know a lady from Tucan or who recommended Tucan and that is what attracted him to the company originally - very knowledgeable about other companies in the market, if not fully up-to-date. Typology - TRADITIONAL
Mike - Australian living in London - found Imtrav through a search engine - very flexible in terms of expectations - no real allegiance to imtrav - going on another trip in November - with Bex to Egypt. Typology - EASY BREEZY
Andy/DAN - accountant/buyer - similar to Mike - easy breezy - just take whatever comes. EASY BREEZY
Tuesday 18 September 2007
Tuesday's ponderings
So- had a good chat with HG and XF yesterday - separately.
always a confusing and bewildering experience.
Harold spoke sense in that he established what I do know.
I know roughly what I want to ask people.
and what I want to find out.
I am unsure of my methods thus far, but this will come.
He pointed to my loss of confidence in the model as a key to my 'wobble'
He also expressed concerns that I may have to re-do my R1.
He pointed to the 'sample' as not a sample, but a population. This seemed to make sense, but at the same time, I would still only be looking at 30 people.
should probably try to check this before I speak to HG again.
I spoke to XF and he proposed a novel change of tack - to look at a list of past customers a TO may have and use this as my quants stats.
Then take a couple of tours and use more ethnographic methods to see if my model works.
This provides more academically robust workings and is something that could be rolled out to other TOs.
always a confusing and bewildering experience.
Harold spoke sense in that he established what I do know.
I know roughly what I want to ask people.
and what I want to find out.
I am unsure of my methods thus far, but this will come.
He pointed to my loss of confidence in the model as a key to my 'wobble'
He also expressed concerns that I may have to re-do my R1.
He pointed to the 'sample' as not a sample, but a population. This seemed to make sense, but at the same time, I would still only be looking at 30 people.
should probably try to check this before I speak to HG again.
I spoke to XF and he proposed a novel change of tack - to look at a list of past customers a TO may have and use this as my quants stats.
Then take a couple of tours and use more ethnographic methods to see if my model works.
This provides more academically robust workings and is something that could be rolled out to other TOs.
Monday 17 September 2007
R1
Had the R1 - confirmation of registration with Glenn, Rhodri, Harold and Xavier
Found the whole thing quite strange.
Some good points came out of it.
1) exploration of what Responsible is.
2) 2 -stage aims - are they equally important?
3) model - is it just off the shelf - too easy?
4) is the whole thing too much?
nothing earth shattering, and 3 of them are pretty much resolved by ditching the quantitative side of the study as I think I now plan to do.
Will speak to Harold Monday and approach the subject of a purely qualititative study.
Need to do serious work on what this means - do I have a model?
Found the whole thing quite strange.
Some good points came out of it.
1) exploration of what Responsible is.
2) 2 -stage aims - are they equally important?
3) model - is it just off the shelf - too easy?
4) is the whole thing too much?
nothing earth shattering, and 3 of them are pretty much resolved by ditching the quantitative side of the study as I think I now plan to do.
Will speak to Harold Monday and approach the subject of a purely qualititative study.
Need to do serious work on what this means - do I have a model?
Wednesday 12 September 2007
Shaw in Glasgow
quite an odd meeting with deirdre.
very nice lady
opened up a lot of interesting avenues.
possibly the most interesting was the contextualising of RT.
what is responsible tourism?
the most responsible thing of course is not to go on holiday.
then not to go abroad.
then maybe to look at modifying your behaviour slightly.
i need to be clear that what I am looking at is a niche group of people who have chosen to 'tweak' their behaviour. mainstreamers or perhaps soft-adventurerers who have 'modified' slightly. not voluntary simplicity - are these people voting with their purchases?
Clare weeden - PhD about to complete - very relevant - looking at values in RTourists
to complete fairly soon.
other main aspect was the TPB itself - apparantly goal-orientation is the new idea. Bagozzi
hasn't been a great deal of work done on it, and apparantly it's not very clear, but needs to be looked at nonetheless.
we came to the conclusion really that I need to speak to more people before I make any crazed direction decisions. I need to go to Morocco and pick people's brains and then think. What am I really trying to discover, what am I really trying to get at and WHY?
Am I looking at the stories people tell? am I looking at motivations? am I looking at dialogues? Am I just trying to tell who these people are? Will there be distinct groups of people within my research? modifiers/adventurers/ randoms?
do i need to be a bit more adventurous?
deirdre mentioned Sheila Ferguson - Otago - looking at adventure.
Also Alternative hedonism??
Need to check on this.
very nice lady
opened up a lot of interesting avenues.
possibly the most interesting was the contextualising of RT.
what is responsible tourism?
the most responsible thing of course is not to go on holiday.
then not to go abroad.
then maybe to look at modifying your behaviour slightly.
i need to be clear that what I am looking at is a niche group of people who have chosen to 'tweak' their behaviour. mainstreamers or perhaps soft-adventurerers who have 'modified' slightly. not voluntary simplicity - are these people voting with their purchases?
Clare weeden - PhD about to complete - very relevant - looking at values in RTourists
to complete fairly soon.
other main aspect was the TPB itself - apparantly goal-orientation is the new idea. Bagozzi
hasn't been a great deal of work done on it, and apparantly it's not very clear, but needs to be looked at nonetheless.
we came to the conclusion really that I need to speak to more people before I make any crazed direction decisions. I need to go to Morocco and pick people's brains and then think. What am I really trying to discover, what am I really trying to get at and WHY?
Am I looking at the stories people tell? am I looking at motivations? am I looking at dialogues? Am I just trying to tell who these people are? Will there be distinct groups of people within my research? modifiers/adventurers/ randoms?
do i need to be a bit more adventurous?
deirdre mentioned Sheila Ferguson - Otago - looking at adventure.
Also Alternative hedonism??
Need to check on this.
Friday 7 September 2007
Shaw Chapter 3
p59 strong focus on attitude
with definition p60
how scaling of responses allowed for better measurement of attitudes.
p60 La piere and the first doubts about the link between attitude and behaviour.
if the link is spurious - what then?
The issue can be broken down into
A) bad measurement of attitude
B) bad measurement of behaviour
C) other variables excluded.
Ajzen and Fishbein look closely at "principle of compatability" - the close rthe specification of generality of specificity between target, action, context and time.
Authors who failed to address this, produced poor relations between attitude and behaviour.
Ajzen and Fishbein look to INTENTION as the intermediary between attitude and behaviour.
p62 looks at the multi-component nature of attitude
COGNITION - knowledge
AFFECT - feeling
BEHAVIOUR - action
much discussion of this multi-component approach, but it developed into single-component, with COGNITION becoming BELIEFS, which contribute to attitude, AFFECT becoming attitude, and Behaviour moves into behavioural intention needed prior to the behaviour itself.
p67-68 go into the formation of attitudes. Central to this is the idea that beliefs lead to the formation of attitudes.
P68 attitude consistency theories, getting onto Festinger.
p69 Attitude towards object vs towards behaviour
(need to be clear) attitude towards an object is 'attitude' - formed from beliefs and evaluation of those beliefs. need to clarify.
attitude towards behaviour is an individuals positive or negative evaluation of performing the behaviour in question.
TRA looks at attitudes towards specific behaviours. see p72
WE LOOK AT ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPECIFIC BEHAVIOURS NOT OBJECTS
SN and PBC introduced.
PBC delves into people's perceptions rather than actual control.
Criticisms of TRA/TPB.
- people's ability to process info.
- the direction of the causal relationship between attitude and beliefs.
- criticism of elicitation questionnaire.
- often shows low correlations
SN and beliefs can often become blurred. (i want to make my daughter happy/ i think my daughter would like me to do it)
p82 - goes into how to analyse - SEM/regression analysis
with definition p60
how scaling of responses allowed for better measurement of attitudes.
p60 La piere and the first doubts about the link between attitude and behaviour.
if the link is spurious - what then?
The issue can be broken down into
A) bad measurement of attitude
B) bad measurement of behaviour
C) other variables excluded.
Ajzen and Fishbein look closely at "principle of compatability" - the close rthe specification of generality of specificity between target, action, context and time.
Authors who failed to address this, produced poor relations between attitude and behaviour.
Ajzen and Fishbein look to INTENTION as the intermediary between attitude and behaviour.
p62 looks at the multi-component nature of attitude
COGNITION - knowledge
AFFECT - feeling
BEHAVIOUR - action
much discussion of this multi-component approach, but it developed into single-component, with COGNITION becoming BELIEFS, which contribute to attitude, AFFECT becoming attitude, and Behaviour moves into behavioural intention needed prior to the behaviour itself.
p67-68 go into the formation of attitudes. Central to this is the idea that beliefs lead to the formation of attitudes.
P68 attitude consistency theories, getting onto Festinger.
p69 Attitude towards object vs towards behaviour
(need to be clear) attitude towards an object is 'attitude' - formed from beliefs and evaluation of those beliefs. need to clarify.
attitude towards behaviour is an individuals positive or negative evaluation of performing the behaviour in question.
TRA looks at attitudes towards specific behaviours. see p72
WE LOOK AT ATTITUDES TOWARDS SPECIFIC BEHAVIOURS NOT OBJECTS
SN and PBC introduced.
PBC delves into people's perceptions rather than actual control.
Criticisms of TRA/TPB.
- people's ability to process info.
- the direction of the causal relationship between attitude and beliefs.
- criticism of elicitation questionnaire.
- often shows low correlations
SN and beliefs can often become blurred. (i want to make my daughter happy/ i think my daughter would like me to do it)
p82 - goes into how to analyse - SEM/regression analysis
Shaw chapter 2
p37 good point that intro leads from previous chapter and explains what is coming up...
going to look at overall models of behaviour - comprehensive models
Andreasen Model
Nicosia model
Howard-Sheth Model
Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model
look at each in turn
attention to strengths and weaknesses
Not particularly easy to apply the models
conceptually well -developed, but nature, relationship and impact of the model variables are not clearly outlined.
One key difference when looking at these models is the focus on high/low involvement.
holidays much more involved than ft
p49 focus shifts towards attitudes.
TRA looking at attitude-behaviour relationships.
discusses the model and others that are similar, then moves onto what could be added to the model.
p55 key from Ajzen - open to inclusion of new variables.
Look at criticisms of TRA
constant reference to the rationality of consumers (invisble hand)
we are essentially looking for something more than self interest.
The model does not consider moral norms or ethical themes.
Gentle into to behaviour models ansd then attitude through TRA.
going to look at overall models of behaviour - comprehensive models
Andreasen Model
Nicosia model
Howard-Sheth Model
Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model
look at each in turn
attention to strengths and weaknesses
Not particularly easy to apply the models
conceptually well -developed, but nature, relationship and impact of the model variables are not clearly outlined.
One key difference when looking at these models is the focus on high/low involvement.
holidays much more involved than ft
p49 focus shifts towards attitudes.
TRA looking at attitude-behaviour relationships.
discusses the model and others that are similar, then moves onto what could be added to the model.
p55 key from Ajzen - open to inclusion of new variables.
Look at criticisms of TRA
constant reference to the rationality of consumers (invisble hand)
we are essentially looking for something more than self interest.
The model does not consider moral norms or ethical themes.
Gentle into to behaviour models ansd then attitude through TRA.
Thursday 6 September 2007
Shaw Thesis chapter one
Nothing too earthshattering. Nice gentle introduction.
p22 - nice overview of surveys carried out by different groups, guaging people's opinions on ft
p23 - nice little mention of Mssrs Muncy and Vitell - and their limitations.
p24 - the gap is mentioned
p25 - begins to look at where other work has limitations - mention of the temporal dynamic, how people may look on things differently at different times. goes back to reflexivity - need to consider more.
p26 - beginning to go into the reasons for awareness-raising in the past 20 years.
p28 nice point about the mixes messages to the marketplace - do we support africa through buying products when we have to fly them thousand of miles?
p29 explicit aims listed
p30 basics of quants and qualis
p34 nice table looking a the different methods
p22 - nice overview of surveys carried out by different groups, guaging people's opinions on ft
p23 - nice little mention of Mssrs Muncy and Vitell - and their limitations.
p24 - the gap is mentioned
p25 - begins to look at where other work has limitations - mention of the temporal dynamic, how people may look on things differently at different times. goes back to reflexivity - need to consider more.
p26 - beginning to go into the reasons for awareness-raising in the past 20 years.
p28 nice point about the mixes messages to the marketplace - do we support africa through buying products when we have to fly them thousand of miles?
p29 explicit aims listed
p30 basics of quants and qualis
p34 nice table looking a the different methods
Sunday 2 September 2007
The nature of virtue
Virtue ethics continued.
Case Histories in Business ethics.
The nature of virtue.
>We can acquire virtue - we are adapted by nature to receive virtue, through practice or habit.
'Men become builders by building... so too we become just by doing just acts.'
Practice has a cognitive role.
First a childis told to do something by a person (parent) 'share your sweets'
>purely external knowledge. They do not yet see the point.
> internal knowledge can only be guided through practising just acts. learning by doing.
>example of skiing is used. Why is it good? Because my mate says it is. Only by doing it can we tell if it is good and articulate 'INTERNALLY' why.
> After time we figure out why it is a good thing and choose to do it ourselves.
Desire is key.
Virtuous action requires the right desires.
Initiatially the desire may be to please a parent (in the example of share your sweets) but then the desire changes as the child sees the benefit in itself. The practicing of the just act reinforces the DESIRE.
Conditions of a just act:
1. have knowledge
2. must choose the act
3. must proceed fro a firm and unchangeable character.
The last two are achieved through practice.
>Virtue is a state of character
This is a settled disposition of the mind helped by practice.
> Desire certain things/believe certain things - kindof fixed.
>CHOICE _ agents choose actions for their own sakes. (do not want objects - want things for reasons) learned through practice.
Where does RATIONALITY COME IN???
Rationality comes in once an agent has reached the stage of 'seeing' the point of an activity (giving sweets to friends or skiing)
> At this stage the agent does not simply desire that activity, but desires it for a reason.
> development of this RATIONALITY has two aspects;
1. what is the point of activity? reflecting on why one activity is more worthwhile than another.
2. Agents desires are guided by reason. The strength of desire matches the value of the objective.
> The ethically virtuous agent will be fully rational > therefore ethically virtuous life is part of the eudaimon life, because eudaimon life is fully rational life.
Aristotelian virtue theory and BE
Just treatment of those engaged in business requires attention to the PURPOSE of the business.
> Because specific activities have specific goals, particular virtues may be more prominent in some activity than in others.
> therefore the nature of the business will have a role in determining which virtues are likely to be prominent for those engaged in this activity. eg. goal - selling goods and services. 'friendliness, truthfulness, and justice will be prominent.
Virtue theory and the goal of business.
Aristotle argues that it would not make sense for a carpenter or shoemaker to have a goal, if human life as such had none.
>there are bigger ultimate ENDS.
> so they must contribute to some further end, the goal of human life as a whole.
What is the business contribution to eudaimonia?
Conclusion
2 views
Sternberg - goal is to maximise owner value.
Virtue theory - sell enough goods and services for people to lead a virtuous life. greater goal is eudaimonia . > everything else id subordinate. Business activity must be constrained by the ultimate end.
Limit to business
1. contrary to human flourishing > not to be engaged in.
Business should be engaged in when its internal goal is understood, with th internal goal of producing sufficient owner value for flourishing.
2. Contrast with health > no limit to how much health you can have
Health is worthwhile for is own sake. It is an end in itself, unlike wealth. Wealth has a sufficient level, unlike health.
The danger of following unlimited wealth is that there is a danger in not recognising that wealth is a means to eudaimonia, not an end in itself.
The 'value' of wealth is limited by its contribution to eudaimonia > unlimited wealth is not worth pursuing.
Case Histories in Business ethics.
The nature of virtue.
>We can acquire virtue - we are adapted by nature to receive virtue, through practice or habit.
'Men become builders by building... so too we become just by doing just acts.'
Practice has a cognitive role.
First a childis told to do something by a person (parent) 'share your sweets'
>purely external knowledge. They do not yet see the point.
> internal knowledge can only be guided through practising just acts. learning by doing.
>example of skiing is used. Why is it good? Because my mate says it is. Only by doing it can we tell if it is good and articulate 'INTERNALLY' why.
> After time we figure out why it is a good thing and choose to do it ourselves.
Desire is key.
Virtuous action requires the right desires.
Initiatially the desire may be to please a parent (in the example of share your sweets) but then the desire changes as the child sees the benefit in itself. The practicing of the just act reinforces the DESIRE.
Conditions of a just act:
1. have knowledge
2. must choose the act
3. must proceed fro a firm and unchangeable character.
The last two are achieved through practice.
>Virtue is a state of character
This is a settled disposition of the mind helped by practice.
> Desire certain things/believe certain things - kindof fixed.
>CHOICE _ agents choose actions for their own sakes. (do not want objects - want things for reasons) learned through practice.
Where does RATIONALITY COME IN???
Rationality comes in once an agent has reached the stage of 'seeing' the point of an activity (giving sweets to friends or skiing)
> At this stage the agent does not simply desire that activity, but desires it for a reason.
> development of this RATIONALITY has two aspects;
1. what is the point of activity? reflecting on why one activity is more worthwhile than another.
2. Agents desires are guided by reason. The strength of desire matches the value of the objective.
> The ethically virtuous agent will be fully rational > therefore ethically virtuous life is part of the eudaimon life, because eudaimon life is fully rational life.
Aristotelian virtue theory and BE
Just treatment of those engaged in business requires attention to the PURPOSE of the business.
> Because specific activities have specific goals, particular virtues may be more prominent in some activity than in others.
> therefore the nature of the business will have a role in determining which virtues are likely to be prominent for those engaged in this activity. eg. goal - selling goods and services. 'friendliness, truthfulness, and justice will be prominent.
Virtue theory and the goal of business.
Aristotle argues that it would not make sense for a carpenter or shoemaker to have a goal, if human life as such had none.
>there are bigger ultimate ENDS.
> so they must contribute to some further end, the goal of human life as a whole.
What is the business contribution to eudaimonia?
Conclusion
2 views
Sternberg - goal is to maximise owner value.
Virtue theory - sell enough goods and services for people to lead a virtuous life. greater goal is eudaimonia . > everything else id subordinate. Business activity must be constrained by the ultimate end.
Limit to business
1. contrary to human flourishing > not to be engaged in.
Business should be engaged in when its internal goal is understood, with th internal goal of producing sufficient owner value for flourishing.
2. Contrast with health > no limit to how much health you can have
Health is worthwhile for is own sake. It is an end in itself, unlike wealth. Wealth has a sufficient level, unlike health.
The danger of following unlimited wealth is that there is a danger in not recognising that wealth is a means to eudaimonia, not an end in itself.
The 'value' of wealth is limited by its contribution to eudaimonia > unlimited wealth is not worth pursuing.
Saturday 1 September 2007
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics
Aristotelian Virtue ethics
Case studies in Business Ethics
>Business ethics looked upon as a branch of irtue ethics as a whole.
>key to know the purpose of the activity of business in order to clarify how some of the virtue ethics apply in that area.
>Interestingly it is argued that this account of virtue ethics may itself have a bearing on what the internal goal of business is.
purpose > < virtue ethics
>Also considers how virtue is acquired.
2 KEY questions - What kind of life should I live? or what is the eudaion life, the happy life?
does vitue pay? What is the connection between a life of virtue and eudaimonia or happiness?
> IN order to go deeper Aristotle needed to define eudaimonia and the role of virtue in the eudaimon life.
> so what? the goal of business must be consistent with eudaimonia.
The nature of eudaimonia.
In Nicomachean Ehics (NE) Aristotle looks at eudaimonia.
Aim of all agents is good.
> Ultimate goal is eudaimonia.
however, lots of differing views about it.
> we can say what eudaimonia is not . eg. wealth. pleasure. honour.
> left with life of contemplation and life of virtue ethics.
To go deeper Aristotle suggests looking deeper at the function of human life to help clarify eudaimonia - what is good for a thing depends on the kind of thing it is.
> Aristotle put forward the idea that all humans have purposes/functions.
Good 'humans' will flourish and succeed (multiply).
Bad will not.
Like a good acorn.
Humans are the same - the good ones develop.
p42 getting a bit abstract.
On human nature Aristotle believes that humans develop just as acorns etc.
The good ones actualise or realise their potential.
> Good members of the kind realise potential.
> realising this potential for a fully rational life is human nature.
> So, the eudaimon life is when potential is fully realise to a maximally rational life.
>What is rational life?
Very broad definition.
language, imagination, relationships, drawing conclusions, etc.
>eudaimon life is fully rational. So need for link between eudaimon life and a 'life of ethical virtue'.
Need to show that an ethically virtuous life is fully rational.
link between ethically virtuous life and full rationality.
Case studies in Business Ethics
>Business ethics looked upon as a branch of irtue ethics as a whole.
>key to know the purpose of the activity of business in order to clarify how some of the virtue ethics apply in that area.
>Interestingly it is argued that this account of virtue ethics may itself have a bearing on what the internal goal of business is.
purpose > < virtue ethics
>Also considers how virtue is acquired.
2 KEY questions - What kind of life should I live? or what is the eudaion life, the happy life?
does vitue pay? What is the connection between a life of virtue and eudaimonia or happiness?
> IN order to go deeper Aristotle needed to define eudaimonia and the role of virtue in the eudaimon life.
> so what? the goal of business must be consistent with eudaimonia.
The nature of eudaimonia.
In Nicomachean Ehics (NE) Aristotle looks at eudaimonia.
Aim of all agents is good.
> Ultimate goal is eudaimonia.
however, lots of differing views about it.
> we can say what eudaimonia is not . eg. wealth. pleasure. honour.
> left with life of contemplation and life of virtue ethics.
To go deeper Aristotle suggests looking deeper at the function of human life to help clarify eudaimonia - what is good for a thing depends on the kind of thing it is.
> Aristotle put forward the idea that all humans have purposes/functions.
Good 'humans' will flourish and succeed (multiply).
Bad will not.
Like a good acorn.
Humans are the same - the good ones develop.
p42 getting a bit abstract.
On human nature Aristotle believes that humans develop just as acorns etc.
The good ones actualise or realise their potential.
> Good members of the kind realise potential.
> realising this potential for a fully rational life is human nature.
> So, the eudaimon life is when potential is fully realise to a maximally rational life.
>What is rational life?
Very broad definition.
language, imagination, relationships, drawing conclusions, etc.
>eudaimon life is fully rational. So need for link between eudaimon life and a 'life of ethical virtue'.
Need to show that an ethically virtuous life is fully rational.
link between ethically virtuous life and full rationality.
Sternberg
Case studies in business ethics
Sternberg model - ethical decision model
>decision model - moral judgements
>map - sense of direction
the decision model identifies whch problems businessmen actually need to address in their business capacities, and offer ways to resolve them.
> the model indicates what information is relevant to ethical decision making; it organises that information so that it will be more productive in leading to a decision and it specifies the ethical prnciples to be employed in the deciding what is right.
+ consistency+ clarity+ learning from experience
Sternberg's model has 5 steps
1. Clarify the issue - sometimes seems very complex
need to ask - is it relevant to business? is it relevant to this business? And is it a problem for this business? break it down further - does the issue relate to maximising long-term owner value? (this may clear up a lot of crap)
2. If it is relevant to business - is it an issue for a particular firm?
3. IDENTIFY constraints which may limit solutions. Confined by law and regulation, also contractual, economic, physical and technial.
4. Look at alternative solutions measured against profit max, distributive justice and ordinary decency. The dstributive/decency is usually quite straight forward.
p37-38 good chat about remuneration
5. Identifying the right course of action
easy - whichever path maximises profit and complies with distributive justice /ordinary decency
WHY IS IT ARISTOTELIAN???
It specifies the defintion of business in terms of purpose and then determines the proper conduct of business by reference to that definitive purpose.
That is the key point.
Sternberg model - ethical decision model
>decision model - moral judgements
>map - sense of direction
the decision model identifies whch problems businessmen actually need to address in their business capacities, and offer ways to resolve them.
> the model indicates what information is relevant to ethical decision making; it organises that information so that it will be more productive in leading to a decision and it specifies the ethical prnciples to be employed in the deciding what is right.
+ consistency+ clarity+ learning from experience
Sternberg's model has 5 steps
1. Clarify the issue - sometimes seems very complex
need to ask - is it relevant to business? is it relevant to this business? And is it a problem for this business? break it down further - does the issue relate to maximising long-term owner value? (this may clear up a lot of crap)
2. If it is relevant to business - is it an issue for a particular firm?
3. IDENTIFY constraints which may limit solutions. Confined by law and regulation, also contractual, economic, physical and technial.
4. Look at alternative solutions measured against profit max, distributive justice and ordinary decency. The dstributive/decency is usually quite straight forward.
p37-38 good chat about remuneration
5. Identifying the right course of action
easy - whichever path maximises profit and complies with distributive justice /ordinary decency
WHY IS IT ARISTOTELIAN???
It specifies the defintion of business in terms of purpose and then determines the proper conduct of business by reference to that definitive purpose.
That is the key point.
Friday 31 August 2007
Case Studies in Business Ethics
Chapter 2
Interesting intro pointing to a need for action as opposed to chat.
2 approaches are looked at in the chapter.
Both kindof Aristotelian
1. Idea that behaviour is affected by decisions
look at decisions
decision procedures
how do we figure out the right think to do?
JUDGEMENT
2. Idea that motivation is key.
virtue theory
what do we want?
DESIRE
1. Sternberg - essentially teleological and Aristotelian.
definition of a human activity should be given in fixed terms of its purpose.
we assess goodness of behaviour by reference to the defining the purpose of the behaviour.
Purposes are essential for defining goodness.
'If the purpose of writing is to inform, then what counts as good writing will be different if the purpose is to confuse or amuse.
> purpose of business - maximise owner value
this is what differentiates business from club/gov/family
>in order to maximise value long-term, confidence is needed
therefore trust is needed
legality must be favoured
honesty, fairness must be followed
ORDINARY DECENCY
> In order to achieve its purpose DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE must be followed
i.e. rewards for contributions to cause. Good pay for hard work etc.
Business is ethical when it maximises long-term owner value subject to distributive justice and ordinary decency.
P29 Key insights into ethical decisions.
>not an add-on
>if an act does not maximise owner-value lon-term, then it is wrong, both ethically and financially
>must contribute
>this does not mean 'green' stuff in wrong - it may contribute long-term.
>Using business resources for non-related activities in THEFT.
p.30
>business should only partake in activities where adds to long-term value is maximised
>one additional issue with unrelated 'social responsibility' is that it distracts from real ethical objectives. diverts attention.
>shouldn't give money to charity to avoid justice for unethical activities.
New Slant.
Some corps fo follow other goals, as decided by their shareholders.
>Stakeholder theory. idea that business is not run for financial gain of owners, but for the benefit of those who have a stake in the business. eg. employees/customers.
However, Sternberg argues
A business is not a business unless it follows th goal of profit maximisation long-run.
Anything else - not business.
Stakeholder theory may be an improvement, but it is not business.
Interesting intro pointing to a need for action as opposed to chat.
2 approaches are looked at in the chapter.
Both kindof Aristotelian
1. Idea that behaviour is affected by decisions
look at decisions
decision procedures
how do we figure out the right think to do?
JUDGEMENT
2. Idea that motivation is key.
virtue theory
what do we want?
DESIRE
1. Sternberg - essentially teleological and Aristotelian.
definition of a human activity should be given in fixed terms of its purpose.
we assess goodness of behaviour by reference to the defining the purpose of the behaviour.
Purposes are essential for defining goodness.
'If the purpose of writing is to inform, then what counts as good writing will be different if the purpose is to confuse or amuse.
> purpose of business - maximise owner value
this is what differentiates business from club/gov/family
>in order to maximise value long-term, confidence is needed
therefore trust is needed
legality must be favoured
honesty, fairness must be followed
ORDINARY DECENCY
> In order to achieve its purpose DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE must be followed
i.e. rewards for contributions to cause. Good pay for hard work etc.
Business is ethical when it maximises long-term owner value subject to distributive justice and ordinary decency.
P29 Key insights into ethical decisions.
>not an add-on
>if an act does not maximise owner-value lon-term, then it is wrong, both ethically and financially
>must contribute
>this does not mean 'green' stuff in wrong - it may contribute long-term.
>Using business resources for non-related activities in THEFT.
p.30
>business should only partake in activities where adds to long-term value is maximised
>one additional issue with unrelated 'social responsibility' is that it distracts from real ethical objectives. diverts attention.
>shouldn't give money to charity to avoid justice for unethical activities.
New Slant.
Some corps fo follow other goals, as decided by their shareholders.
>Stakeholder theory. idea that business is not run for financial gain of owners, but for the benefit of those who have a stake in the business. eg. employees/customers.
However, Sternberg argues
A business is not a business unless it follows th goal of profit maximisation long-run.
Anything else - not business.
Stakeholder theory may be an improvement, but it is not business.
Managing Values and Beliefs in orgs
Book.
Chapter 1
Rise of CSR
dates back to American civil war and the sharp rise of capitalism afterwards.
anti-trust movement dates back to this time.
business was seen as powerful and dangerous.
consolidation in business has led to a small number of powerful orgs.
General Motors, Ford Motor Company, IBM, General Electric Company, Mobil, Exxon.
There are large hidden costs to society - despite philanthropy.
case against CSR
Milton Freedman - biggest name against.
There are different anti groups- some calling for more government intervention.
Rise of Business Ethics BE
Post-war phenomenon
Watergate>Nixon>public disillusionment
the emergence of 'post-industrialist' society
Difference between BE and CSR
Idea that BE is taking 'universal' ethics and applying them to business.
CSR is more specific.
Case against BE
The example of poker is used - need a bit of deception to win.
some say business is already regulated by law
however is morality broader than legality . pg 9
rise of corporate governance
most recent - came after big corporate failures of 1980s/1990s
due to fraud and huge pay packages for big brass
Case for CG
idea is that business does not collapse if corporate governance regulations are put in place
see Cadbury Code
Against CG
Would not have prevented some of th failures/collapses
Some say recommendations intrude too much.
too much focus on accountability not prosperity.
Integration of CG, BE, CSR
The book looks to bring them all together.
Chapter 1
Rise of CSR
dates back to American civil war and the sharp rise of capitalism afterwards.
anti-trust movement dates back to this time.
business was seen as powerful and dangerous.
consolidation in business has led to a small number of powerful orgs.
General Motors, Ford Motor Company, IBM, General Electric Company, Mobil, Exxon.
There are large hidden costs to society - despite philanthropy.
case against CSR
Milton Freedman - biggest name against.
There are different anti groups- some calling for more government intervention.
Rise of Business Ethics BE
Post-war phenomenon
Watergate>Nixon>public disillusionment
the emergence of 'post-industrialist' society
Difference between BE and CSR
Idea that BE is taking 'universal' ethics and applying them to business.
CSR is more specific.
Case against BE
The example of poker is used - need a bit of deception to win.
some say business is already regulated by law
however is morality broader than legality . pg 9
rise of corporate governance
most recent - came after big corporate failures of 1980s/1990s
due to fraud and huge pay packages for big brass
Case for CG
idea is that business does not collapse if corporate governance regulations are put in place
see Cadbury Code
Against CG
Would not have prevented some of th failures/collapses
Some say recommendations intrude too much.
too much focus on accountability not prosperity.
Integration of CG, BE, CSR
The book looks to bring them all together.
Thursday 30 August 2007
Malloy and Lang
Aristotelian Approach to Case Study
The traditional, and possibly accepted view is a 'rational' positivistic view of organisational behaviour.
The kindof anti-example is the Ford Pinto, where there was a fault, but they carried on regardless with production. This could be seen as a reason for something more than a cost-benefit analysis - especially considering the lack of ethics involved.
To analyse the factors which influence organisational behaviour in a comprehensive manner, we need to extend our knowledge to a higher epistomological level. - TRANSRATIONAL.
Essentially 4 elements to the Metaphysics of Aristotle.
Material Cause - out of which something is made
Formal Cause - that into which something is made
Efficient cause - that by which something is made
Final cause - that for the sake of which something is made
Eg. a shoe - leather is material cause, the form that the shoe takes is the formal cause, the cobbler is the efficient cause of the shoe, supporting the cobblers family is the final cause.
Aristotle did not mean for the First Principle and the Four Cause to be used in an administrative context.
The traditional, and possibly accepted view is a 'rational' positivistic view of organisational behaviour.
The kindof anti-example is the Ford Pinto, where there was a fault, but they carried on regardless with production. This could be seen as a reason for something more than a cost-benefit analysis - especially considering the lack of ethics involved.
To analyse the factors which influence organisational behaviour in a comprehensive manner, we need to extend our knowledge to a higher epistomological level. - TRANSRATIONAL.
Essentially 4 elements to the Metaphysics of Aristotle.
Material Cause - out of which something is made
Formal Cause - that into which something is made
Efficient cause - that by which something is made
Final cause - that for the sake of which something is made
Eg. a shoe - leather is material cause, the form that the shoe takes is the formal cause, the cobbler is the efficient cause of the shoe, supporting the cobblers family is the final cause.
Aristotle did not mean for the First Principle and the Four Cause to be used in an administrative context.
Tuesday 28 August 2007
A & F
Chapter three looks at behaviour and tries to define it in some way.
Looks at individual actions as well as behaviour categories (groups of individual actions)
important details of how single actions can be interpreted incorrectly and also how they can be misleading.
Also the difference between an action and an action towards a target. eg. success in an exam is the combination of a number of single actions. Not an action in itself.
The later part of the chapter goes on to point out the specific need for
ACTION
TARGET
CONTEXT
TIME
Need for detail. This thread will become very important. Matching up the degree of pinpointedness about the action/target/context/time
Do you recycle?
Do you recycle newspapers, every sunday, by bringing them to the box at the end of the street?
Looks at individual actions as well as behaviour categories (groups of individual actions)
important details of how single actions can be interpreted incorrectly and also how they can be misleading.
Also the difference between an action and an action towards a target. eg. success in an exam is the combination of a number of single actions. Not an action in itself.
The later part of the chapter goes on to point out the specific need for
ACTION
TARGET
CONTEXT
TIME
Need for detail. This thread will become very important. Matching up the degree of pinpointedness about the action/target/context/time
Do you recycle?
Do you recycle newspapers, every sunday, by bringing them to the box at the end of the street?
Ajzen and Fishbein Ch 2 (1980)
Goes into the history of academic work in attitudes
Thurstone one of the first to look a t a 'scale'
it was fairly complicated and so others looked to simplify it into a unidimensional scale.
Likert developed his scale.
Allport then called for something more qualitative, recognising the complex nature of attitude.
Other authors looked into the breakdown of the link - LaPiere most famous study.
Doob looked at how attitude and as well as response needed to be learned and were not just a simple relationship between them.
The trilogy of COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, and CONATIVE (BEHAVIOURAL) aspects of attitude emerged.
COGNITIVE - perceptual responses and verbal statements of belief.
AFFECTIVE - sympathetic nervous responses, and verbal statements of affect
BEHAVIOURAL - overt actions and verbal statements concerning behaviour.
The rilogy was however binned to some extent as the different measures were seen to flow into one.
Thurstone one of the first to look a t a 'scale'
it was fairly complicated and so others looked to simplify it into a unidimensional scale.
Likert developed his scale.
Allport then called for something more qualitative, recognising the complex nature of attitude.
Other authors looked into the breakdown of the link - LaPiere most famous study.
Doob looked at how attitude and as well as response needed to be learned and were not just a simple relationship between them.
The trilogy of COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, and CONATIVE (BEHAVIOURAL) aspects of attitude emerged.
COGNITIVE - perceptual responses and verbal statements of belief.
AFFECTIVE - sympathetic nervous responses, and verbal statements of affect
BEHAVIOURAL - overt actions and verbal statements concerning behaviour.
The rilogy was however binned to some extent as the different measures were seen to flow into one.
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)
Going through the original text again.
Some questions raised - do I need to loo ka t the 1975 text? How far back do I need to go?
The model looks at prediction and understanding - does this mean a minor tweaking of what I was talking about? I was looking at peolpe who had made the decision to purchase an RT break - ie the action has been taken, however I think that will now need to become a sample of peopl ewho purchase RT breaks and then probe why they might purchase an RT break. A little fiddly I realise, but I will have to work with this.
The theory is designed to explain virtually any human behaviour, whether we wnat to understand why a person bought a new car, voted against a school board issue, was absent from work... - not restricted to a specific behaviour
Does this invalidate specific application of the model? NO, but changes to the model will need to be carefully considered.
What exactly does COGNITIVE mean? need to explore definitions.
What is Behaviour theory? need to have a look at this.
Some questions raised - do I need to loo ka t the 1975 text? How far back do I need to go?
The model looks at prediction and understanding - does this mean a minor tweaking of what I was talking about? I was looking at peolpe who had made the decision to purchase an RT break - ie the action has been taken, however I think that will now need to become a sample of peopl ewho purchase RT breaks and then probe why they might purchase an RT break. A little fiddly I realise, but I will have to work with this.
The theory is designed to explain virtually any human behaviour, whether we wnat to understand why a person bought a new car, voted against a school board issue, was absent from work... - not restricted to a specific behaviour
Does this invalidate specific application of the model? NO, but changes to the model will need to be carefully considered.
What exactly does COGNITIVE mean? need to explore definitions.
What is Behaviour theory? need to have a look at this.
Wednesday 22 August 2007
Terry Newholm
Went to see Terry in Manchester
Very nice chap. very helpful. lots of new ideas and avenues to explore.
Mentioned setting up meetings with Rob Harrison and Deirdre Shaw.
Brought a whole new perspective to the Constructivist side of things.
Terry would look at discourse analysis - eg. traditional tourist discourse and ethical or green discourse to see where RT might fit in.
He talked me through a lot of epistimological/ontological options and pointed out the difficultis with following certain paths. Thinks I am a critical realist - check.
Gave me some good refs to go away and check up on.
need to really explore what my new knowledge is. What is my contribution?
will my model be unique or the same?
Does TPB need to be universal?
Applicable to everything?
Need to really study the Ajzen Fishbein book to see exactly where they were coming from.
Were they trying to explain everything?
Very nice chap. very helpful. lots of new ideas and avenues to explore.
Mentioned setting up meetings with Rob Harrison and Deirdre Shaw.
Brought a whole new perspective to the Constructivist side of things.
Terry would look at discourse analysis - eg. traditional tourist discourse and ethical or green discourse to see where RT might fit in.
He talked me through a lot of epistimological/ontological options and pointed out the difficultis with following certain paths. Thinks I am a critical realist - check.
Gave me some good refs to go away and check up on.
need to really explore what my new knowledge is. What is my contribution?
will my model be unique or the same?
Does TPB need to be universal?
Applicable to everything?
Need to really study the Ajzen Fishbein book to see exactly where they were coming from.
Were they trying to explain everything?
Tuesday 21 August 2007
R1 latest
almost there
just need to make sure there is enough criticism of old RT work
and that it all hangs together
further trimming possibly equired.
maybe cut definition
ETC stuff too.
Focus on Terry Newholm at the moment
want to have a good set of questions for him.
just need to make sure there is enough criticism of old RT work
and that it all hangs together
further trimming possibly equired.
maybe cut definition
ETC stuff too.
Focus on Terry Newholm at the moment
want to have a good set of questions for him.
Tuesday 14 August 2007
meet with xavier
lots of good stuff regarding R1 doc.
why why
why?
why use methodology
more detail needed
why TRA
1) tested
2) benchmarked
3)?
4) robust?
why 3 different companies?
3 different generations?
does it matter?
explain things?
why is this area in such need of work?
details timeline???
data analysis -
quali detail - mining into tra questions
detail - why?
ethical clearance?
cut down on lots of stuff - re- write in order.
why why
why?
why use methodology
more detail needed
why TRA
1) tested
2) benchmarked
3)?
4) robust?
why 3 different companies?
3 different generations?
does it matter?
explain things?
why is this area in such need of work?
details timeline???
data analysis -
quali detail - mining into tra questions
detail - why?
ethical clearance?
cut down on lots of stuff - re- write in order.
Monday 6 August 2007
Bauman interview
Great interview by Tourism Studies with ZB about tourism and ZB's interpretation of it.
Need to print off in the office.
Wonderful link to how tourists use up their curiosity on familiar surrounds - Algarve etc. but could use it for much more 'ethical' purposes.
Good interview to steal a few words from.
Just look up ZB and tourism in google.
Need to print off in the office.
Wonderful link to how tourists use up their curiosity on familiar surrounds - Algarve etc. but could use it for much more 'ethical' purposes.
Good interview to steal a few words from.
Just look up ZB and tourism in google.
Meeting with Simon Robinson
Very productive meeting with Simon today.
Although Consumer Ethics is not really his speciality, he was able to provide good perspective and reassurance.
He recommended having a good look at a couple of things.
Paul Ricouer - philosophies
JP Lederach - summing up Ricouer
Journal of moral education
M. Possardt - December 2004
Douglas Rest
He also said it may be worth having another look at Sigmund Bauman
He mentioned a company called interface inc, who look at exactly what an ethical company do.
Key point was really about the value of qualitative/quantitative research. The use of scales etc. in this area is of course going to offer limited answers, but will offer comparision. Simon pointed to the need for the post-tour interview/group work to be rich and qualitative. Get some real answers. Is there going to be any lines between what the companies say they want to do and what they do? Do people actually change? is this experience lifechanging?
another angle was to look at 'processing the experience' - when does this happen?
does it happen?
I think another good look at Bauman will shed some light. He looks at the consumer very much in the sense that he has no responsiblity. Need to check it out.
Where dos the responsibility lie? With the consumer? with the company?
Do people experience a hightened level of awareness when on tour?
Although Consumer Ethics is not really his speciality, he was able to provide good perspective and reassurance.
He recommended having a good look at a couple of things.
Paul Ricouer - philosophies
JP Lederach - summing up Ricouer
Journal of moral education
M. Possardt - December 2004
Douglas Rest
He also said it may be worth having another look at Sigmund Bauman
He mentioned a company called interface inc, who look at exactly what an ethical company do.
Key point was really about the value of qualitative/quantitative research. The use of scales etc. in this area is of course going to offer limited answers, but will offer comparision. Simon pointed to the need for the post-tour interview/group work to be rich and qualitative. Get some real answers. Is there going to be any lines between what the companies say they want to do and what they do? Do people actually change? is this experience lifechanging?
another angle was to look at 'processing the experience' - when does this happen?
does it happen?
I think another good look at Bauman will shed some light. He looks at the consumer very much in the sense that he has no responsiblity. Need to check it out.
Where dos the responsibility lie? With the consumer? with the company?
Do people experience a hightened level of awareness when on tour?
Saturday 4 August 2007
Sparks 1992
Self-Identity and the Theory of Planned Behavior: Assesing the Role of Identification with" Green Consumerism"
deep look at self identity and whether it is an independent variable in the formation of intention.
the authors seem convinced that it is not independent, but rather an antecedent to attitude.
they tackle the articles claiming that it is independent and carry out research of their own.
they kinda come to the conclusion that it is independent (grudgingly) but point out that other authors do not apply A + F 100% accurately.
good intro to self id.
You want to do A, and you should do A (B), but you are the sort of person who does C.
deep look at self identity and whether it is an independent variable in the formation of intention.
the authors seem convinced that it is not independent, but rather an antecedent to attitude.
they tackle the articles claiming that it is independent and carry out research of their own.
they kinda come to the conclusion that it is independent (grudgingly) but point out that other authors do not apply A + F 100% accurately.
good intro to self id.
You want to do A, and you should do A (B), but you are the sort of person who does C.
thought for the day
Very preliminary look at tourism satisfaction
keen to develop a link between the initial questionnaire and the Satisfaction part.
in the initial questionnaire the questions will ask 'how important' they think something is.
this is to give some indication of 'how ethical' they are. these 'ethical' questions can then be asked again at the end of the tour, with the added dimension of to what extent do you think they existed on tour - need to develop, but the initial seeds are there.
keen to develop a link between the initial questionnaire and the Satisfaction part.
in the initial questionnaire the questions will ask 'how important' they think something is.
this is to give some indication of 'how ethical' they are. these 'ethical' questions can then be asked again at the end of the tour, with the added dimension of to what extent do you think they existed on tour - need to develop, but the initial seeds are there.
Friday 3 August 2007
R1 latest
I had a re-jig of the R1 doc I gave to Harold and xavier in May/June.
The main points coing out of that meeting were methodological, so the real bul of the changes wil be in the methods part at the end. I have completed up to the part which goes into the design of the project and I have about 1500 words to play with.
I will need to go into Customer/consumer satisfaction models over the weekend to establish what i want to use. As an aim, I would like to have that chosen by monday - probs fairly standard, but need to keep in mind the experiential side of things.
The link - people who are more 'ethically oriented' more likely to enjoy an 'ethical holiday'????
Going to meet this dude on monday - need to do some serious prep for it.
Simon Robinson.
Need to get whatever I need Saturday to that I have it all for Headingley campus Sunday Monday.
Ethics.
The main points coing out of that meeting were methodological, so the real bul of the changes wil be in the methods part at the end. I have completed up to the part which goes into the design of the project and I have about 1500 words to play with.
I will need to go into Customer/consumer satisfaction models over the weekend to establish what i want to use. As an aim, I would like to have that chosen by monday - probs fairly standard, but need to keep in mind the experiential side of things.
The link - people who are more 'ethically oriented' more likely to enjoy an 'ethical holiday'????
Going to meet this dude on monday - need to do some serious prep for it.
Simon Robinson.
Need to get whatever I need Saturday to that I have it all for Headingley campus Sunday Monday.
Ethics.
Thursday 2 August 2007
update
trying to put together some sort of R1 doc
guess i need to do some work on customer satisfaction first
but it will be in with the small part on methods at the end, just like TPB
need to really ge the structure set and flow.
there are lots of patches of this and that everywhere.
need cohesion
guess i need to do some work on customer satisfaction first
but it will be in with the small part on methods at the end, just like TPB
need to really ge the structure set and flow.
there are lots of patches of this and that everywhere.
need cohesion
Wednesday 1 August 2007
update
currently trying to write up a concise overview of where Shaw is at in terma of development from TRA to TPB to include ethical and self-identity variabes.
then how these can be integrated and also whether they are independent of attitude or antecedents.
once this is in place - discussion of regression analysis verses SEM.
needs to be fairly high level, to allow for easy integration into R1 do to be written next week.
Satisfaction of course needs to be addressed. Looking at this point that a few assumptions will need to be made, but for the sake of the R1 it should be fine.
then how these can be integrated and also whether they are independent of attitude or antecedents.
once this is in place - discussion of regression analysis verses SEM.
needs to be fairly high level, to allow for easy integration into R1 do to be written next week.
Satisfaction of course needs to be addressed. Looking at this point that a few assumptions will need to be made, but for the sake of the R1 it should be fine.
Shaw 2000 - Conference paper
The Impact of Ethics in Consumer Choice: a Multivariate Modelling Case Study
same same as far is shaw is concerned - maybe slightly better in terms of breaking down the constructs; ATT SN PBC SI
Diagrams are good and clear
Again makes reference to the need to look more closely at A+F work regarding the detail - why and how do we split these concepts (context/traditional etc.)
same same as far is shaw is concerned - maybe slightly better in terms of breaking down the constructs; ATT SN PBC SI
Diagrams are good and clear
Again makes reference to the need to look more closely at A+F work regarding the detail - why and how do we split these concepts (context/traditional etc.)
Shaw 2003
Ethics in consumer choice: a multivariate modelling approach
Same same as far as Shaw's work goes, but a little more detail in terms of the sub-constructs for the main antecedents of intention. I think it is all taken from A + F with att_traditional, att_control, etc. Goes into more detail of SEM than other articles.
Need to consider just how statistical I want to go, as there are a lot of measures used here, and I would need to feel comfortable with them.
The model itself does make more sense than the basic TPB, but is more stat - intensive.
The division of the sample into 2 groups is just to test the validity of one of the groups.
Good Diagram - model two, which shows all the links,
need to check the meaning of latent variable.
Same same as far as Shaw's work goes, but a little more detail in terms of the sub-constructs for the main antecedents of intention. I think it is all taken from A + F with att_traditional, att_control, etc. Goes into more detail of SEM than other articles.
Need to consider just how statistical I want to go, as there are a lot of measures used here, and I would need to feel comfortable with them.
The model itself does make more sense than the basic TPB, but is more stat - intensive.
The division of the sample into 2 groups is just to test the validity of one of the groups.
Good Diagram - model two, which shows all the links,
need to check the meaning of latent variable.
Tuesday 31 July 2007
Shaw 2002
The role of ethical obligation and self-identity in ethical consumer choice
Good article that probes at the roles of ethical obligation and self-identity. Do they affect intention directly or do they affect attitude, along with beliefs? The new model that is developed looks at how both may be possible - using SEM - structured equation modelling.
There are three distinct areas to look at: why include ethical obligation at all, why include self-identity at all, where they fit in re: attitude and intention.
The article looks at thee different steps. 1. TPB. 2. TPB plus ethOB and SELFID 3. how ethob and selfid affect attitude/intention.
Many variables have been proposed as additions to the theory of planned behaviour structure, and evidence exists to support the value of a measure of ethical obligation and self-identity. Furthermore, some research has suggested that ethical obligation may serve as an antecedent to attitude as well as intention. This paper presents findings from a large scale survey that highlights the usefulness of ethical obligation and self-identity in the prediction of intention. Additionally, the role of both these variables in the prediction of attitude is also suggested. This is examined within the 'ethical' context of fair trade grocery purchases. Methodological implications for further research are discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of International Journal of Consumer Studies is the property of Blackwell Publishing Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Many variables have been proposed as additions to the theory of planned behaviour structure, and evidence exists to support the value of a measure of ethical obligation and self-identity. Furthermore, some research has suggested that ethical obligation may serve as an antecedent to attitude as well as intention. This paper presents findings from a large scale survey that highlights the usefulness of ethical obligation and self-identity in the prediction of intention. Additionally, the role of both these variables in the prediction of attitude is also suggested. This is examined within the 'ethical' context of fair trade grocery purchases. Methodological implications for further research are discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of International Journal of Consumer Studies is the property of Blackwell Publishing Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Good article that probes at the roles of ethical obligation and self-identity. Do they affect intention directly or do they affect attitude, along with beliefs? The new model that is developed looks at how both may be possible - using SEM - structured equation modelling.
There are three distinct areas to look at: why include ethical obligation at all, why include self-identity at all, where they fit in re: attitude and intention.
The article looks at thee different steps. 1. TPB. 2. TPB plus ethOB and SELFID 3. how ethob and selfid affect attitude/intention.
Many variables have been proposed as additions to the theory of planned behaviour structure, and evidence exists to support the value of a measure of ethical obligation and self-identity. Furthermore, some research has suggested that ethical obligation may serve as an antecedent to attitude as well as intention. This paper presents findings from a large scale survey that highlights the usefulness of ethical obligation and self-identity in the prediction of intention. Additionally, the role of both these variables in the prediction of attitude is also suggested. This is examined within the 'ethical' context of fair trade grocery purchases. Methodological implications for further research are discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of International Journal of Consumer Studies is the property of Blackwell Publishing Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Many variables have been proposed as additions to the theory of planned behaviour structure, and evidence exists to support the value of a measure of ethical obligation and self-identity. Furthermore, some research has suggested that ethical obligation may serve as an antecedent to attitude as well as intention. This paper presents findings from a large scale survey that highlights the usefulness of ethical obligation and self-identity in the prediction of intention. Additionally, the role of both these variables in the prediction of attitude is also suggested. This is examined within the 'ethical' context of fair trade grocery purchases. Methodological implications for further research are discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of International Journal of Consumer Studies is the property of Blackwell Publishing Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Monday 30 July 2007
Shaw
What am I trying to answer?
TRA has moved into TPB and now can include self-identity and ethical considerations.
The basic diagrams are fine - what exactly is perceived behavioural control?
At what point was it introduced?
What articles introduced ethical and self-identity variables?
As in Shaw and Shiu - do the new variables not influence attitude as well as intention?
How do we test this?
What are the two questionnaires for - 'elicitation questionnaire'?
TRA has moved into TPB and now can include self-identity and ethical considerations.
The basic diagrams are fine - what exactly is perceived behavioural control?
At what point was it introduced?
What articles introduced ethical and self-identity variables?
As in Shaw and Shiu - do the new variables not influence attitude as well as intention?
How do we test this?
What are the two questionnaires for - 'elicitation questionnaire'?
Shaw et al. 2000
The Contribution of Ethical Obligation and Self-identity to the Theory of Planned Behaviour: An Exploration of Ethical Consumers
Whilst the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has generated much research interest, many market researchers are divided over the addition of further constructs to the model. The TRA and its many modifications have been applied in numerious behavioural contexts, however, research to-date has neglected an emerging group of 'ethical' consumers. This paper outlines results from a recent survey of over 1400 UK consumers that applied the TRA to this complex area of decision making. Using readers to the 'Ethical Consumer' magazine, the study addresses issues involving proposed model modifications--specifically, the addition of control, ethical obligation and self-identity. Management implications of the findings are discussed, including the importance of understanding consumers' self-identification with ethical issues in marketing communications programmes; and the underlying potentional importance of ethical issues to mainstream consumer groups. Finally, the need to develop conceptually as well as practically robust techniques by using Structural Equation Modelling, which represents the next stage in this research, is outlined. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Marketing Management is the property of Westburn Publishers Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Whilst the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has generated much research interest, many market researchers are divided over the addition of further constructs to the model. The TRA and its many modifications have been applied in numerious behavioural contexts, however, research to-date has neglected an emerging group of 'ethical' consumers. This paper outlines results from a recent survey of over 1400 UK consumers that applied the TRA to this complex area of decision making. Using readers to the 'Ethical Consumer' magazine, the study addresses issues involving proposed model modifications--specifically, the addition of control, ethical obligation and self-identity. Management implications of the findings are discussed, including the importance of understanding consumers' self-identification with ethical issues in marketing communications programmes; and the underlying potentional importance of ethical issues to mainstream consumer groups. Finally, the need to develop conceptually as well as practically robust techniques by using Structural Equation Modelling, which represents the next stage in this research, is outlined. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Marketing Management is the property of Westburn Publishers Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Key text which develops from TRA adding in PBC(perceived behavioural control) to give the TPB - theory of planned behaviour. Shaw believes there is a need to include more explanatory factors (ethical and self-identity)
Shaw outlines the 2 questionnaires (elicitation and main)
Unsure of what elicitation means (seems to just mean 'draws a response')
Explains how TPB adds to the explanation ahead of TRA, but the new variables explain even more.
The work includes an example of the questionnaire (appendix)
Whilst the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has generated much research interest, many market researchers are divided over the addition of further constructs to the model. The TRA and its many modifications have been applied in numerious behavioural contexts, however, research to-date has neglected an emerging group of 'ethical' consumers. This paper outlines results from a recent survey of over 1400 UK consumers that applied the TRA to this complex area of decision making. Using readers to the 'Ethical Consumer' magazine, the study addresses issues involving proposed model modifications--specifically, the addition of control, ethical obligation and self-identity. Management implications of the findings are discussed, including the importance of understanding consumers' self-identification with ethical issues in marketing communications programmes; and the underlying potentional importance of ethical issues to mainstream consumer groups. Finally, the need to develop conceptually as well as practically robust techniques by using Structural Equation Modelling, which represents the next stage in this research, is outlined. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Marketing Management is the property of Westburn Publishers Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Whilst the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has generated much research interest, many market researchers are divided over the addition of further constructs to the model. The TRA and its many modifications have been applied in numerious behavioural contexts, however, research to-date has neglected an emerging group of 'ethical' consumers. This paper outlines results from a recent survey of over 1400 UK consumers that applied the TRA to this complex area of decision making. Using readers to the 'Ethical Consumer' magazine, the study addresses issues involving proposed model modifications--specifically, the addition of control, ethical obligation and self-identity. Management implications of the findings are discussed, including the importance of understanding consumers' self-identification with ethical issues in marketing communications programmes; and the underlying potentional importance of ethical issues to mainstream consumer groups. Finally, the need to develop conceptually as well as practically robust techniques by using Structural Equation Modelling, which represents the next stage in this research, is outlined. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Marketing Management is the property of Westburn Publishers Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Key text which develops from TRA adding in PBC(perceived behavioural control) to give the TPB - theory of planned behaviour. Shaw believes there is a need to include more explanatory factors (ethical and self-identity)
Shaw outlines the 2 questionnaires (elicitation and main)
Unsure of what elicitation means (seems to just mean 'draws a response')
Explains how TPB adds to the explanation ahead of TRA, but the new variables explain even more.
The work includes an example of the questionnaire (appendix)
The Ethical Consumer
Chapter 9 of the Ethical Consumer brings a whole new area of research into play.
Deirdre Shaw has done a lot of work with ethical consumers and carried out large sacle surveys with ethical consumers (subscribers to the Ethical Consumer magazine) and more 'mainstream' consumers - supermarket shoppers.
There also appears to be two different ways to model the results. Need to dig deeper to understand the two models and speak to ECRA and Deirdre Shaw to get to the bottom of this.
Deirdre Shaw has done a lot of work with ethical consumers and carried out large sacle surveys with ethical consumers (subscribers to the Ethical Consumer magazine) and more 'mainstream' consumers - supermarket shoppers.
There also appears to be two different ways to model the results. Need to dig deeper to understand the two models and speak to ECRA and Deirdre Shaw to get to the bottom of this.
Monday 23 July 2007
Ajzen and Fishbein History
There was a movement to develop unidimensional scales - Likert.
This was used to measure all sorts of attitudes - war, blacks, birth control...
They seemed to offer a direct link between attitude and bahaviour.
Richard Lapiere (1934) did a breakthrough work with Chinese in US. Showed little link between attitudes and behaviours. Big discrepancy. Through all previous work into doubt.
From there various authors began to break down attitude into three parts
cognition (beliefs)
affect (feelings)
conation (actions)
However, even when they did break it down - there was still a strong link between attitude and behaviour, but does not explain why the link is sometimes weak.
The three pronged approach did not seem to bear fruit.
Consistency Theories
The idea that people search for consistency between their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.
The most interesting thing however, was Festigers theory of cognitive dissonance. How people can sometimes not bring these things into equilibrium, or act in ways incongruent with their beliefs.
Recent developments
Due to the lack solid empirical work between attitude and behaviour the latest focus (1970) has been on "other variables"
This was used to measure all sorts of attitudes - war, blacks, birth control...
They seemed to offer a direct link between attitude and bahaviour.
Richard Lapiere (1934) did a breakthrough work with Chinese in US. Showed little link between attitudes and behaviours. Big discrepancy. Through all previous work into doubt.
From there various authors began to break down attitude into three parts
cognition (beliefs)
affect (feelings)
conation (actions)
However, even when they did break it down - there was still a strong link between attitude and behaviour, but does not explain why the link is sometimes weak.
The three pronged approach did not seem to bear fruit.
Consistency Theories
The idea that people search for consistency between their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.
The most interesting thing however, was Festigers theory of cognitive dissonance. How people can sometimes not bring these things into equilibrium, or act in ways incongruent with their beliefs.
Recent developments
Due to the lack solid empirical work between attitude and behaviour the latest focus (1970) has been on "other variables"
Ajzen and Fishbein 1980
The key difference between Hunt + Vitell is that H+V deal with ethical issues.
Ajzen and Fishbein look at the attitude/behaviour relationship.
H+V look at the ethical judgement made as a combination of deontological and teleological evaluations . These judgements form intentions that then lead to behaviour.
With the Theory of Reasoned Action does not explicitly deal with ethics.
Personal Attitudes (based on beliefs)
Sujective norms (based on normative beliefs)
These peronal attitudes and sujective norms combine to give intentions and then behaviours.
Ajzen and Fishbein look at the attitude/behaviour relationship.
H+V look at the ethical judgement made as a combination of deontological and teleological evaluations . These judgements form intentions that then lead to behaviour.
With the Theory of Reasoned Action does not explicitly deal with ethics.
Personal Attitudes (based on beliefs)
Sujective norms (based on normative beliefs)
These peronal attitudes and sujective norms combine to give intentions and then behaviours.
Supervisor meeting Thursday 19th July
Overall - quite positive.
HG - look to the ICRT website - try to be available Oct 13-14th
HG - Simon Robinson of Leeds Met will be there - might be worth contacting him
HG - Let's look at Co-op - what exactly do they do/ask people? Get down to Manchester
Neither were convinced by Muncy -Vitell - not sure I am either.
Xavier said to look at Dunlop - what Mohammed did.
AR to email XF re Miller PhD
HG - Check out Journal of Vacation Marketing
XF - AR to email HC or Catherine re dates for submission for R1
HG - Walter Wehrmeyer - check him out
What are Discovery? - mentioned as high end RT company
Germany - stats on consumers - Reiseanalyse...
Mintel maybe in central reference libraries Manchester or leeds
Really need to get all over this scale s business.
Work on Satisfaction stuff
Get more involoved and find out some info from key people
Talked a little about overall strategy.
HG confident of getting TOs on board
Observation pretty much binned. Just catch them for 3 days at end of the tour - find 'hub' points to catch all the punters.
Focus on Aug 14/15 get something to Xavier.
HG - look to the ICRT website - try to be available Oct 13-14th
HG - Simon Robinson of Leeds Met will be there - might be worth contacting him
HG - Let's look at Co-op - what exactly do they do/ask people? Get down to Manchester
Neither were convinced by Muncy -Vitell - not sure I am either.
Xavier said to look at Dunlop - what Mohammed did.
AR to email XF re Miller PhD
HG - Check out Journal of Vacation Marketing
XF - AR to email HC or Catherine re dates for submission for R1
HG - Walter Wehrmeyer - check him out
What are Discovery? - mentioned as high end RT company
Germany - stats on consumers - Reiseanalyse...
Mintel maybe in central reference libraries Manchester or leeds
Really need to get all over this scale s business.
Work on Satisfaction stuff
Get more involoved and find out some info from key people
Talked a little about overall strategy.
HG confident of getting TOs on board
Observation pretty much binned. Just catch them for 3 days at end of the tour - find 'hub' points to catch all the punters.
Focus on Aug 14/15 get something to Xavier.
Thursday 19 July 2007
TPB
Thinking about Theory of planned behaviour from Fennell / Harrision and a big focus is looking at attitudes - intentions - behaviour.
The biggest issue in TPB is linking all this together - especially when applied to ethical purchasing - one key difference is that in my study the purchase has already been made.
This investigation post-purchase puts a completely different spin on things.
The biggest issue in TPB is linking all this together - especially when applied to ethical purchasing - one key difference is that in my study the purchase has already been made.
This investigation post-purchase puts a completely different spin on things.
Rawwas 1994
Consumer ethics: The possible effects of terrorism and civil unrest on the ethical values of consumers
Research investigating the consumer's ethical beliefs, ideologies and orientation has been limited. Additionally, despite the repeated call in the literature for cross cultural research, virtually no studies have examined the ethical beliefs and ideologies of consumers from cultures other than those in North America. This study partially fills this "gap" in the literature by investigating the ethical beliefs, preferred ethical ideology, and degree of Machiavellianism of consumers from Egypt and Lebanon. The results indicate that consumers in Lebanon, which has been torn by civil unrest and terrorism, tend to be more Machiavellian, less idealistic, and more relativistic than their Egyptian counterparts. Additionally, the Lebanese consumers tend to be more accepting of "questionable" consumer practices.
Uses the same Rawwas methodology
Research investigating the consumer's ethical beliefs, ideologies and orientation has been limited. Additionally, despite the repeated call in the literature for cross cultural research, virtually no studies have examined the ethical beliefs and ideologies of consumers from cultures other than those in North America. This study partially fills this "gap" in the literature by investigating the ethical beliefs, preferred ethical ideology, and degree of Machiavellianism of consumers from Egypt and Lebanon. The results indicate that consumers in Lebanon, which has been torn by civil unrest and terrorism, tend to be more Machiavellian, less idealistic, and more relativistic than their Egyptian counterparts. Additionally, the Lebanese consumers tend to be more accepting of "questionable" consumer practices.
Uses the same Rawwas methodology
Fullerton 1996
Consumer ethics: An assessment of individual behavior in the market place
A national sample of 362 respondents assessed the ethical predisposition of the American marketplace by calculating a consumer ethics index. The results indicate that the population is quite intolerant of perceived ethical abuses. The situations where consumers are ambivalent tend to be those where the seller suffers little or no economic harm from the consumer's action. Younger, more educated, and higher income consumers appear more accepting of these transgressions. The results provided the basis for developing a four-group taxonomy of consumers which retailers should find insightful in assessing potential consumer actions in a variety of situations.
Brings in a new adapted version of MVQ
No startling conclusions
A national sample of 362 respondents assessed the ethical predisposition of the American marketplace by calculating a consumer ethics index. The results indicate that the population is quite intolerant of perceived ethical abuses. The situations where consumers are ambivalent tend to be those where the seller suffers little or no economic harm from the consumer's action. Younger, more educated, and higher income consumers appear more accepting of these transgressions. The results provided the basis for developing a four-group taxonomy of consumers which retailers should find insightful in assessing potential consumer actions in a variety of situations.
Brings in a new adapted version of MVQ
No startling conclusions
Rawwas 1998
A Cross-Cultural Investigation of the Ethical Values of Consumers: The Potential Effect of War and Civil Disruption
Past research has examined the ethical judgments of consumers in the U.S., but few studies have investigated such attitudes in foreign-market settings. The current study compares ethical attitudes of consumers in two countries (Ireland and Lebanon) which share a cultural similarity of ongoing war and terrorism. The findings reveal that both cultures exhibit low sensitivity to ethical issues. Furthermore, the findings show that the Irish consumers are less sensitive to consumer ethical practices, less idealistic, more relativistic, and more Machiavellian than Lebanese consumers. The authors recommend that other researchers need to further investigate this perplexing issue because ethics is a research topic which often discourages survey respondents to be candid.
Usual methodology from Rawwas
Past research has examined the ethical judgments of consumers in the U.S., but few studies have investigated such attitudes in foreign-market settings. The current study compares ethical attitudes of consumers in two countries (Ireland and Lebanon) which share a cultural similarity of ongoing war and terrorism. The findings reveal that both cultures exhibit low sensitivity to ethical issues. Furthermore, the findings show that the Irish consumers are less sensitive to consumer ethical practices, less idealistic, more relativistic, and more Machiavellian than Lebanese consumers. The authors recommend that other researchers need to further investigate this perplexing issue because ethics is a research topic which often discourages survey respondents to be candid.
Usual methodology from Rawwas
Rawwas 1996
Consumer ethics: An empirical investigation of the ethical beliefs of Austrian consumers
Business and Marketing ethics have come to the forefront in recent years. While consumers have been surveyed regarding their perceptions of ethical business and marketing practices, research has been minimal with regard to their ethical beliefs and ideologies. In addition, no study has examined the ethical beliefs of Austrian consumers even though Austria maintains a unique status of political neutrality, nonalignment, stability, economic prosperity and geographical proximity to the East- and West-European countries. This research investigates the relationship between Machiavellianism, ethical ideology and ethical beliefs of Austrian consumers. The results indicate that Austrian consumers are mostly "situationists" who, while rejecting moral rules, judge the ethics of a behavior by the consequences and outcomes of the situation.
Same methodology as ever for Rawwas
Business and Marketing ethics have come to the forefront in recent years. While consumers have been surveyed regarding their perceptions of ethical business and marketing practices, research has been minimal with regard to their ethical beliefs and ideologies. In addition, no study has examined the ethical beliefs of Austrian consumers even though Austria maintains a unique status of political neutrality, nonalignment, stability, economic prosperity and geographical proximity to the East- and West-European countries. This research investigates the relationship between Machiavellianism, ethical ideology and ethical beliefs of Austrian consumers. The results indicate that Austrian consumers are mostly "situationists" who, while rejecting moral rules, judge the ethics of a behavior by the consequences and outcomes of the situation.
Same methodology as ever for Rawwas
Bateman 2002
Framing Effects Within the Ethical Decision Making Process of Consumers
There has been neglect of systematic conceptual development and empirical investigation within consumer ethics. Scenarios have been a long-standing tool yet their development has been haphazard with little theory guiding their development. This research answers four questions relative to this gap: Do different scenario decision frames encourage different moral reasoning styles? Does the way in which framing effects are measured make a difference in the measurement of the relationship between moral reasoning and judgment by gender? Are true framing effects likely to vary with the situation? and Are true framing effects likely to vary by gender? The conclusions reached were that (1) different scenario frames encourage both types of reasoning, but rule based moral reasoning is dominant regardless of frame, (2) accounting for formal equivalency in the measurement of true framing effects is likely to enhance the interpretation of studies in moral reasoning and judgment, (3) True framing effects are more likely to occur in situations with low to moderate perceived ethicality, and (4) true framing effects are not likely to vary by gender. Explanations as to why these results occurred are discussed.
All about Framing effects - how they can influence reasoning and behavioural preferences.
Need to go back to this article when re-framing situations.
There has been neglect of systematic conceptual development and empirical investigation within consumer ethics. Scenarios have been a long-standing tool yet their development has been haphazard with little theory guiding their development. This research answers four questions relative to this gap: Do different scenario decision frames encourage different moral reasoning styles? Does the way in which framing effects are measured make a difference in the measurement of the relationship between moral reasoning and judgment by gender? Are true framing effects likely to vary with the situation? and Are true framing effects likely to vary by gender? The conclusions reached were that (1) different scenario frames encourage both types of reasoning, but rule based moral reasoning is dominant regardless of frame, (2) accounting for formal equivalency in the measurement of true framing effects is likely to enhance the interpretation of studies in moral reasoning and judgment, (3) True framing effects are more likely to occur in situations with low to moderate perceived ethicality, and (4) true framing effects are not likely to vary by gender. Explanations as to why these results occurred are discussed.
All about Framing effects - how they can influence reasoning and behavioural preferences.
Need to go back to this article when re-framing situations.
Chan 1998
Ethical Beliefs of Chinese Consumers in Hong Kong
In recent years, there has been increased awareness of unethical consumer practices in Asian countries. Asian consumers have gained a bad reputation for buying counterfeit products, such as computer software, fashion clothing and watches. In 1993, the estimated losses to US software companies due to Chinese counterfeiting stood at US $322 million (Kohut, 1994). The present study uses a consumer ethics scale developed by Muncy and Vitell (1992) to investigate consumers' ethical judgments from a Chinese perspective. The result shows that consumers in different cultures utilize similar rules to assess the ethicality of a given situation. However, findings also show certain cultural elements that are unique in influencing Chinese consumers' ethical judgments. The results also indicate the need for the continued development of and investment in consumer education in Asia.
Uses MVQ on studies form Hong Kong - and also uses the MUncy-Vitell method of looking at allignment with business etc.
No particularly interesting findings.
Interesting that they do not modify MVQ at all.
Need to have a really close look at the buyer/seller dyad. There must be more than buyer vs seller - what about society???? environment???
In recent years, there has been increased awareness of unethical consumer practices in Asian countries. Asian consumers have gained a bad reputation for buying counterfeit products, such as computer software, fashion clothing and watches. In 1993, the estimated losses to US software companies due to Chinese counterfeiting stood at US $322 million (Kohut, 1994). The present study uses a consumer ethics scale developed by Muncy and Vitell (1992) to investigate consumers' ethical judgments from a Chinese perspective. The result shows that consumers in different cultures utilize similar rules to assess the ethicality of a given situation. However, findings also show certain cultural elements that are unique in influencing Chinese consumers' ethical judgments. The results also indicate the need for the continued development of and investment in consumer education in Asia.
Uses MVQ on studies form Hong Kong - and also uses the MUncy-Vitell method of looking at allignment with business etc.
No particularly interesting findings.
Interesting that they do not modify MVQ at all.
Need to have a really close look at the buyer/seller dyad. There must be more than buyer vs seller - what about society???? environment???
Tuesday 17 July 2007
Polonsky 2001
Consumer Ethics in the European Union: A Comparison of Northern and Southern Views
There is a growing interest in understanding consumer ethical actions in relation to their dealings with firms. This paper examines whether there are differences between Northern and Southern European Union (EU) consumers' perceptions of ethical consumer behaviour using Muncy and Vitell's (1992) Consumer Ethics Scale (CES). The study samples 962 university students across four Northern EU countries (Germany, Denmark, Scotland, The Netherlands) and four Southern EU countries (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece). Some differences are identified between the two samples, which might question the ability of organisations to consider the EU as one homogeneous market.
employs MVQ (known here as CES) to look at North v South using uni students.
No earth-shattering results
There is a growing interest in understanding consumer ethical actions in relation to their dealings with firms. This paper examines whether there are differences between Northern and Southern European Union (EU) consumers' perceptions of ethical consumer behaviour using Muncy and Vitell's (1992) Consumer Ethics Scale (CES). The study samples 962 university students across four Northern EU countries (Germany, Denmark, Scotland, The Netherlands) and four Southern EU countries (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece). Some differences are identified between the two samples, which might question the ability of organisations to consider the EU as one homogeneous market.
employs MVQ (known here as CES) to look at North v South using uni students.
No earth-shattering results
Muncy 1998
Materialism and Consumer Ethics: An Exploratory Study
As the issue of marketing's social responsibility grows in significance, the topic of materialism surfaces. While many marketing efforts encourage materialism, the materialism that is encouraged may have negative societal effects. An understanding of the effects of materialism on individuals, families, society, etc., is important in evaluating whether or not it is socially irresponsible for marketers to encourage materialism. However, the adequate empirical work has not yet been done on the overall effects of materialism. The current paper asks and addresses one important empirical question in this area. Do consumers who are more materialistic have different ethical standards than those who are not? Empirical evidence is presented which would indicate that materialism is negatively correlated with people's higher ethical standards as consumers. The implications for this in understanding social responsibility are discussed.
not particularly relevant - looks more at materialism and it link with ethics
a strong link is found and the authors discuss where causality may lie.
As the issue of marketing's social responsibility grows in significance, the topic of materialism surfaces. While many marketing efforts encourage materialism, the materialism that is encouraged may have negative societal effects. An understanding of the effects of materialism on individuals, families, society, etc., is important in evaluating whether or not it is socially irresponsible for marketers to encourage materialism. However, the adequate empirical work has not yet been done on the overall effects of materialism. The current paper asks and addresses one important empirical question in this area. Do consumers who are more materialistic have different ethical standards than those who are not? Empirical evidence is presented which would indicate that materialism is negatively correlated with people's higher ethical standards as consumers. The implications for this in understanding social responsibility are discussed.
not particularly relevant - looks more at materialism and it link with ethics
a strong link is found and the authors discuss where causality may lie.
Erffmeyer 1999
An Empirical Investigation of Japanese Consumer Ethics
One of the gaps in the current international marketing literature is in the area of consumer ethics. Using a sample drawn from Japanese consumers, this study investigates these individuals' reported ethical ideology and their perception of a number of different ethical situations in the realm of consumer behavior. Comparisons are then made across several demographic characteristics. The results reveal differences which provide theoretical support for expanded research in the area of cross-cultural/cross-national consumer ethics and highlight the need for managers to consider possible differences in the ethical behavior of consumers when entering a new international market. In addition, this study extends current knowledge in international marketing ethics by utilizing a research design and survey instruments similar to previous studies on consumer ethics.
Excellent article - uses MVQ - EPQ- MACH IV for Japnaese consumers
brings in the new ideas of looking at the scales as independent variables(MACH IV, EPQ) and dependent variables (MVQ)
also uses a diagramatic scale with machiavellian - relativist - idealist
Mentions that Mach, relativism, idealism, are designed to reflect the consumers ideological mindset p40
One of the gaps in the current international marketing literature is in the area of consumer ethics. Using a sample drawn from Japanese consumers, this study investigates these individuals' reported ethical ideology and their perception of a number of different ethical situations in the realm of consumer behavior. Comparisons are then made across several demographic characteristics. The results reveal differences which provide theoretical support for expanded research in the area of cross-cultural/cross-national consumer ethics and highlight the need for managers to consider possible differences in the ethical behavior of consumers when entering a new international market. In addition, this study extends current knowledge in international marketing ethics by utilizing a research design and survey instruments similar to previous studies on consumer ethics.
Excellent article - uses MVQ - EPQ- MACH IV for Japnaese consumers
brings in the new ideas of looking at the scales as independent variables(MACH IV, EPQ) and dependent variables (MVQ)
also uses a diagramatic scale with machiavellian - relativist - idealist
Mentions that Mach, relativism, idealism, are designed to reflect the consumers ideological mindset p40
Friday 13 July 2007
Wheeler 1995
Tourism Marketing Ethics: An Introduction
Good introduction into tourism marketing ethics - really why it has come about and different angles on it. More a case of why things like "green" tourism or "alternative tourism" have come into being.
Initially touches on some literature outside of the tourism field but then goes back into tourism and makes reference to TOs and some campaigns.
Asks the key question of why companies market ethical products - because they are good? or because they want to tap into a changing market?
No really useful specifics.
Good introduction into tourism marketing ethics - really why it has come about and different angles on it. More a case of why things like "green" tourism or "alternative tourism" have come into being.
Initially touches on some literature outside of the tourism field but then goes back into tourism and makes reference to TOs and some campaigns.
Asks the key question of why companies market ethical products - because they are good? or because they want to tap into a changing market?
No really useful specifics.
Wednesday 11 July 2007
Rawwas 2001
Culture, personality and morality
very much focused on the X-cultural aspects of EC.
Looks at a number of different countries and their cultures
Uses Hofstede's idea of PDI (power distance) and UAV (uncertainty avoidance) and other kinda indexes to type to group the features of foreign cultures.
Uses MVQ, MACH, Forsyth
Very much with marketing in mind - how companies can make more money by understanding consumers.
very much focused on the X-cultural aspects of EC.
Looks at a number of different countries and their cultures
Uses Hofstede's idea of PDI (power distance) and UAV (uncertainty avoidance) and other kinda indexes to type to group the features of foreign cultures.
Uses MVQ, MACH, Forsyth
Very much with marketing in mind - how companies can make more money by understanding consumers.
Rawwas 1998
Do Consumers' Ethical Beliefs Vary With Age? A Substantiation of Kohlberg's Typology
Compares three age-groups of consumers in terms of their ethical perceptions, Machiavellianism, relativism and idealism. Hypotheses; Method; Results and discussion; Implications.
Compares three age-groups of consumers in terms of their ethical perceptions, Machiavellianism, relativism and idealism. Hypotheses; Method; Results and discussion; Implications.
Excellent - the usual methods applied to three age groups - kids, teenagers, adults.
Trying to look at whether morals develop with age (Kohlberg)
Uses MVQ, MACH IV, Forsyths EPQ
Very useful study
Very similar to my hypothesis with 3 groups - three TOs
Compares three age-groups of consumers in terms of their ethical perceptions, Machiavellianism, relativism and idealism. Hypotheses; Method; Results and discussion; Implications.
Compares three age-groups of consumers in terms of their ethical perceptions, Machiavellianism, relativism and idealism. Hypotheses; Method; Results and discussion; Implications.
Excellent - the usual methods applied to three age groups - kids, teenagers, adults.
Trying to look at whether morals develop with age (Kohlberg)
Uses MVQ, MACH IV, Forsyths EPQ
Very useful study
Very similar to my hypothesis with 3 groups - three TOs
Singhapakdi 1999
A cross-cultural study of consumer perceptions about marketing ethics
Abstract Given the ever-increasing globalization of economies, growing numbers of marketing firms are expecting more of their profits to be derived from international sales. Global competition is ferocious; thus, developing long-term partner relationships often becomes a significant competitive advantage. Corporate ethics are of pivotal importance in global business, though globalization also complicates ethical questions, because an individual's culture affects his/her ethical decision making. Failures to account for the effects of differences in consumers' culturally-based ethical values will hinder a marketer's efforts to expand internationally. Compares consumers from Malaysia and the USA in terms of their perceptions of marketing ethics situations, their attitudes toward business and salespeople, and their personal moral philosophies. The survey results reveal some significant differences between the consumers from these two countries. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Consumer Marketing is the property of Emerald and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Abstract Given the ever-increasing globalization of economies, growing numbers of marketing firms are expecting more of their profits to be derived from international sales. Global competition is ferocious; thus, developing long-term partner relationships often becomes a significant competitive advantage. Corporate ethics are of pivotal importance in global business, though globalization also complicates ethical questions, because an individual's culture affects his/her ethical decision making. Failures to account for the effects of differences in consumers' culturally-based ethical values will hinder a marketer's efforts to expand internationally. Compares consumers from Malaysia and the USA in terms of their perceptions of marketing ethics situations, their attitudes toward business and salespeople, and their personal moral philosophies. The survey results reveal some significant differences between the consumers from these two countries. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Consumer Marketing is the property of Emerald and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.
study comparing US and Malaysia - very focused on marketing and the cross-cultural aspects thereof.
Looks at moral intensity - no harm/social pressure
Also uses Forsyth to look at relativism/idealism
Interesting that the scenarios used to test ethics are much more extended than MVQ. See appendix
Not quite sure how relevant.
Abstract Given the ever-increasing globalization of economies, growing numbers of marketing firms are expecting more of their profits to be derived from international sales. Global competition is ferocious; thus, developing long-term partner relationships often becomes a significant competitive advantage. Corporate ethics are of pivotal importance in global business, though globalization also complicates ethical questions, because an individual's culture affects his/her ethical decision making. Failures to account for the effects of differences in consumers' culturally-based ethical values will hinder a marketer's efforts to expand internationally. Compares consumers from Malaysia and the USA in terms of their perceptions of marketing ethics situations, their attitudes toward business and salespeople, and their personal moral philosophies. The survey results reveal some significant differences between the consumers from these two countries. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Consumer Marketing is the property of Emerald and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Abstract Given the ever-increasing globalization of economies, growing numbers of marketing firms are expecting more of their profits to be derived from international sales. Global competition is ferocious; thus, developing long-term partner relationships often becomes a significant competitive advantage. Corporate ethics are of pivotal importance in global business, though globalization also complicates ethical questions, because an individual's culture affects his/her ethical decision making. Failures to account for the effects of differences in consumers' culturally-based ethical values will hinder a marketer's efforts to expand internationally. Compares consumers from Malaysia and the USA in terms of their perceptions of marketing ethics situations, their attitudes toward business and salespeople, and their personal moral philosophies. The survey results reveal some significant differences between the consumers from these two countries. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Consumer Marketing is the property of Emerald and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.
study comparing US and Malaysia - very focused on marketing and the cross-cultural aspects thereof.
Looks at moral intensity - no harm/social pressure
Also uses Forsyth to look at relativism/idealism
Interesting that the scenarios used to test ethics are much more extended than MVQ. See appendix
Not quite sure how relevant.
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